Category: World War 1

Many of the bloodiest battles in World War I occurred along the Western Front. There was, however, another lesser-known combat theater that was as equally brutal and bloody: the Isonzo Front. This was the site of the Battles of the Isonzo, which saw more than one million casualties over two years of fighting.

Overview of the Battles of the Isonzo

The Battles of the Isonzo were a series of 12 battles fought between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian armies along the border of what today is Slovenia. Lined with rugged peaks, the Austro-Hungarian forces had fortified the surrounding mountains before Italy officially entered the war.

Italy set its sights on Austria-Hungary following the 1915 Treaty of London, which promised the country territories belonging to the Empire. Led by Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna, the Italians planned to seize Ljubljana. The first attack came on June 23, 1915. Despite their efforts and having more soldiers (ratio of 2:1), the Italian Army failed to secure a victory against the heavily-fortified Austro-Hungarian forces.

Italian infantry during one of the Battles of the Isonzo, 1917. (Photo Credit: Photo12 / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

Cadorna believed the best location to launch an attack was the lower end of the Isonzo River, but he also saw a potential opportunity by striking north, to avoid the mountains altogether. Following the initial attack, the Italians tried to gain ground over several other offensives, and while they managed to penetrate a few miles, the Austro-Hungarian forces inflicted heavy losses.

It was clear the only way to succeed was for the Italian Army to take out positions in the mountains. However, at the same time, they had to cross the Isonzo River if they wanted to neutralize the Austro-Hungarian defenses – a dilemma Italy’s forces would never overcome.

Austro-Hungarian heavy ordnance during the Battles of the Isonzo. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)

Even with a better strategy, the next three battles throughout the autumn of 1916 were marred by the fortresses of the Austro-Hungarian-controlled mountains. As the fight for the Isonzo continued, countless resources were poured into what many could argue was a seemingly pointless conflict.

Mounting casualties

The casualties of the Battles of the Isonzo were horrific. Some 645,000 Italian soldiers were killed, accounting for roughly half of Italian military casualties throughout the First World War. The Austro-Hungarians suffered 450,000, for an overall total of around 1.2 million casualties – and that was prior to the final battle.

Austro-Hungarian soldiers on their way to hospital following one of the Battles of the Isonzo, 1915. (Photo Credit: Art Media / Print Collector / Getty Images)

According to reports, the final battle, also known as the Battle of Caporetto, resulted in around 305,000 Italian casualties and 70,000 on the Austro-Hungarian side.

The first eleven Battles of the Isonzo

First Battle – June 23-July 7, 1915: Cadorna, a firm believer in the benefits of the campaign in Austria-Hungary, launched the first attack. The battle lasted 14 days, and, as aforementioned, the Italians were fought back by the Austro-Hungarians. The Italians were ultimately defeated.

The Italian Army retreats during the Isonzo Campaign, 1917. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

Fourth Battle — November 10-December 2, 1915: The Italian Second Army attempted to occupy Gorizia. They successfully captured the nearby area of Oslavia and San Floriano del Collio, but failed to take their initial target. At the same time, the Italian Third Army launched a series of attacks, but these failed to bring about any significant gains.

Fifth Battle – March 9-17, 1916: The Second and Third Italian Armies once again attempted to take Gorizia, in order to reach the Tolmin Bridgehead. Though the battle was less bloody than those previous, Gorizia still remained free of Italian control.

German machine gunners defend a position during the Isonzo Campaign, 1917. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

Eighth Battle – October 10-12, 1916: With a similar goal to the previous, this offensive saw both sides struggle to achieve victory, as heavy Italian casualties forced the battle to be called off. They suffered between 50,000 and 60,000 casualties, while the Austro-Hungarian forces saw 38,000.

Ninth Battle – November 1-4, 1916: Now positioned in the Soča River Valley, the Italian Army tried to advance further inland, but were, again, met with heavy Austro-Hungarian resistance.

The twelfth and final Battle of the Isonzo

The twelfth Battle of the Isonzo was one of the most sweeping successes of the war. Austro-Hungarian and German forces collaborated and broke through the Italian line along the northern end of the Isonzo, surprising the enemy. By the afternoon of October 24, 1917, the Italians were exhausted and overwhelmed by the Austrian offensive attack; the troops threw down their weapons as Austrians rushed over the Isonzo River to claim Caporetto.

The Italians retreated toward the Piave River, where they established a position by the middle of November. It’s known as one of the worst losses in Italian history.

Austro-Hungarian troops advance during the Isonzo Campaign, 1916. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

At the end of the Battles of the Isonzo, both sides had suffered massive losses, with very little accomplished. The fighting triggered violent anti-war protests throughout Italy, and Cadorna was forced to resign from his role. A new Italian strategy was put in place by Gen. Armando Diaz, who transformed Italy’s role in the war. By shifting from offensive campaigns to defensive ones, the country grew to be a resourceful aid to the Allied forces for the remainder of the war.

Ernest Hemingway’s famed novel, A Farewell to Arms, was somewhat inspired by the bloody Battles of the Isonzo. The book follows the first-person account of an American lieutenant serving in the Ambulance Corps of the Italian Army. Hemingway drew from his own experiences as an ambulance driver along the Italian Front during the Great War.

Images of the First World War often capture the difficulties of trench warfare, with soldiers on all sides of the conflict engaging in a war of attrition, attacking when they were able to. Other images often exemplify the experiences of cavalrymen who are dressed in military uniform while riding in formation.

Although World War I was increasingly fought with new technology that cavalries just couldn’t keep up with, they still played an important role. One instance that demonstrates this best was when a French unit pushed for a Bulgarian surrender while helping to solidify the signing of an armistice.

Cavalry in the First World War

Despite the difficulties cavalry faced against weapons, they were used by both the Triple Entente and Central Powers throughout the First World War. Particularly on the Western Front, many served as infantrymen, as that made them more useful; their use on horseback had been diminished due to the static nature of trench warfare.

Canadian cavalrymen undergoing training at Shorncliffe Army Camp, October 1915. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)

Cavalry were significantly more useful during operations in the Middle East, due to the need for highly mobile units. However, they acted more as mounted infantry, as opposed to traditional cavalry.

They were initially heavily relied on out on the Eastern Front for the same reasons, but, later in the war, many were overhauled out of a need for more infantry and horses to pull supplies and weapons. They were used for mounted combat, however, at certain points of the Balkans Campaign, which saw conflict in Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Bulgaria.

Gen. Louis Franchet d’Espèrey

One of the men to oversee the French cavalry was experienced Gen. Louis Franchet d’Espèrey, who served in a field command position throughout the First World War. He was known for being extremely energetic and intimidating, earning himself the nickname “Desperate Frankie.” He initially served on the Western Front, before commanding the Entente forces on the Eastern Front.

Gen. Louis François d’Espèrey, commander of the large Allied Army based at Salonika, conducted the successful Macedonian Campaign. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / UIG / Getty images)

The fighting during the Salonika Campaign was where he had the most military success. As soon as he arrived, he implemented a strategy organized by Gen. Adolphe Guillaumat, who’d held the position before him. Known as the Vardar Offensive, the plan consisted of a number of phases to be carried out by a combined Serbian, French and Greek force against the Bulgarians in the region.

Launching the Vardar Offensive

The Vardar Offensive was launched on September 15, 1918. The first phase involved an attack on the Bulgarian forces at Dobro Pole, while the second included attacking the Bulgarian First Army between the Vardar River and Doiran Lake.

Allied forces landing at the Saloinka Front during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Paul Thompson / FPG / Archive Photos / Getty Images)

Lastly, d’Espèrey was tasked with marching troops through Demir Hisar, Rupel, Petrici, Blaguša, Gradec, Štip and Belessa, before taking the city of Skopje. He also planned to have troops stationed at Kastania and Tetovo to ensure the Bulgarians wouldn’t be able to flank his forces.

The plan was exceptionally effective, as the offensive only lasted until September 29, 1918.

The 500-mile cavalry charge

One of the reasons for the quick ending to the Vardar Offensive was d’Espèrey’s deployment of the French cavalry. While most of the forces were tasked with fighting along the Bulgarian line, he directly sent 3,000 cavalry troops 500 miles to Skopje. As with the others, the cavalrymen traveled through the Vardar Valley to Skopje, which was vital to the Central Powers’ communication in the Balkans.

Pontoon boat bridge transporting cavalrymen over a Serbian river, 1918. (Photo Credit: Buyenlarge / Getty Images)

Despite the cavalrymen only having personal weapons and lances, they were ordered by Gen. François Jouinot-Gambetta to attack the city, which was held by 50,000 Bulgarian soldiers with machine guns and rifles. Against the odds, the French emerged victorious; this cavalry charge played a vital role in getting the Bulgarian government to sign an armistice.

Bulgarian surrender and the end of World War I

After word reached other Bulgarian forces that Skopje had fallen, they assumed it was because there were large numbers of French forces behind their lines, prompting them to surrender without a fight. Although the German troops were ordered to retake Skopje, they knew they were unlikely to be successful without the Bulgarians on their side.

Serbian military recruits during the Balkans Campaign of World War I. (Photo Credit: Paul Thompson / FPG / Archive Photos / Getty Images)

Instead of trying to take back the city, the Germans began a retreat, which cut them off from the Ottomans. It wasn’t long before the Entente led troops toward Constantinople, prompting the Ottomans to ask for an armistice, as well. The remainder of the Central Powers followed suit shortly after, bringing an end to the First World War on November 11, 1918.

When John Wayne and Republic Pictures needed a technical adviser for the 1949 film Sands of Iwo Jima, they reached out to Graves Erskine. It was a smart move, as few servicemen had a more impressive background than the US Marine.

Erskine had fought in World War I, and during the Second World War served as a commander during the Battle of Iwo Jima. However, his most noble task was set upon him in 1921, when he was chosen to bring the body of the Unknown Soldier home from Le Havre, France.

Graves Erskine’s upbringing and early life

After graduating from high school, Graves Erskine enrolled in Louisiana State University. (Photo Credit: David Pinter / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)

Graves Erskine was born in Columbia, Louisiana in 1897. He was exceptionally bright, graduating as the valedictorian of his high school class at only 15 years old. He later attended Louisiana State University, before joining the Louisiana National Guard.

Graves Erskine’s service during World War I

Graves Erskine took part in the Battle of Belleau Wood, a legendary battle for the US Marine Corps during World War I. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In January 1918, Graves Erskine was sent to France as a platoon leader with the 6th Marine Regiment. While there was less than a year remaining in the First World War, the US Marine took part in a number of critical and high-profile battles, including the famed Battle of Belleau Wood. Occurring from June 1-26, 1918 during the German spring offensive, the battle is considered a defining moment in US Marine Corps history, cementing the service’s status as a battle-ready force.

Erskine also participated in the Battle of Château-Thierry, where he was wounded. He was also injured while fighting in the Saint-Mihiel Offensive in September 1918, in which Gen. John Pershing hoped to break through the German line and take Metz. Following this, he was sent back to the United States, where he underwent nine surgeries and spent more than a year in the hospital.

Transporting the Unknown Soldier

Graves Erskine was onboard the USS Olympia (C-6) while she transported the body of the Unknown Soldier back home to the United States. (Photo Credit: US Federal Government / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In 1921, Graves Erskine was a captain onboard the USS Olympia (C-6), along with a number of other Marines. They were tasked with returning the body of an unidentified soldier – the Unknown Soldier – back to the US.

The coffin was lashed to Olympia‘s deck and Erskine had his men watch over it for four hours at a time. On the journey back, the ship encountered the Tampa Bay hurricane, one of the most intense storms in US history. Despite the turbulent seas, the men onboard Olympia did their duty by watching over the Unknown Soldier the entire trip.

Upon Olympia‘s arrival in Washington, DC, a team of Marines carried the coffin off the ship, while others saluted.

Graves Erskine’s service during World War II

Graves Erskine was a commanding officer during the Battle of Iwo Jima. (Photo Credit: Staff Sergeant Louis R. Lowery, USMC / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In 1928, Graves Erskine was sent to Nicaragua with the 2nd Marine Brigade. He later served as a bodyguard for Nicaraguan President José María Moncada Tapia, the result of his work with the Nicaragua National Guard Detachment, and led a battalion in operations against bandits in northern parts of the country.

During the interwar period, Erskine rose in rank. He began the Second World War as the chief of staff for the Amphibious Force, Atlantic Fleet, and in September 1942 held the same position with the Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet. The following year, while serving in the Pacific, he was promoted to brigadier general and given additional duties.

Graves Erskine’s later life

Graves Erskine retired as one of the US Marine Corps’ most revered and experienced servicemen. (Photo Credit: Official Marine Corps Biography / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

After World War II, Erskine remained in the military. His first action following the conflict was to set up programs, which would make it easier for Marines to properly transition back into civilian life. He was later called to Washington to serve as the administrator of the Retraining and Reemployment Administration (RRA).

The Battle of Cantigny was the first great American victory of the First World War. With a military that was under-trained and ill-prepared, a win on the global stage was necessary to prove the might of the United States. Cantigny was the first time during the conflict where the US military was forced to prove itself – and it didn’t disappoint.

The United States joins World War I

Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images

On April 6, 1917, under President Woodrow Wilson, the US declared its entry into World War I. Unfortunately, the country’s military was ill-prepared, and it would be more than a year before American troops actually made the trek overseas.

One American division sent to Europe was the 1st Infantry Division – better known as the “Big Red One.” It featured the US Army’s best-trained men and was led by Maj. Gen. John Pershing, who was in charge of leading the fight at Cantigny, in northern France. The town was chosen because of its importance as an observational post, and he’d sent over the division to show just how strong the US military was.

US troops claim Cantigny

French troops using flamethrowers to flush Germans from their shelters in Cantigny, May 1918. (Photo Credit: The Print Collector / Print Collector / Getty Images)

The Battle of Cantigny began on May 28, 1918, at around 6:30-6:40 AM. Supported by French troops, the US, under the command of Gen. Charles P. Summerall, began a mass bombing of the German lines, creating a smoke screen for cover. French tanks then began to press forward, with the US troops using them for additional cover while they charged forward on foot.

The agreed plan of attack was to have the troops advance 110 yards every two minutes, and it worked beautifully. Within just half an hour, they’d advanced enough to employ teams with flamethrowers to clear trenches of German soldiers. Over the course of two hours, American troops displaced the Germans occupying the town, taking 100 as prisoners of war in the process (250 were taken overall during the battle), and claimed Cantigny for themselves.

The Germans launch a counterattack

French heavy howitzer going into position to support the American attack on Cantigny, May 1918. (Photo Credit: National Museum of the U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While the Germans were removed from Cantigny, they weren’t going to let the Americans take it without a counterattack. In fact, troops attacked the US troops six times over the course of the next 72 hours.

During this time, the French troops who’d supported the American attack were sent to the Marne in response to a surprise attack launched by German Gen. Erich Lundendorff. This meant the Americans were left to defend Cantigny by themselves.

The Battle of Cantigny proved many things for the US military

US troops during the Battle of Cantigny, May 1918. (Photo Credit: Daily Herald Archive / National Science & Media Museum / SSPL / Getty Images)

When the Americans joined the war, their numbers and lack of training suggested they weren’t going to have much of an impact. As such, the Germans were prepared for the US military to either spend a long time training troops or be ill-prepared and easily defeated. What they realized after the Battle of Cantigny was that this wasn’t the case.

War enthusiasts and video game fanatics will be excited to learn that the latest release in the WW1 Game Series has officially hit the market. Titled Isonzo, it’s based on the over two years of fighting that occurred between the Italians and the Austro-Hungarians along the Southern Front of the First World War.

A column of Italian infantry during the Battles of the Isonzo, 1917. (Photo Credit: Photo12 / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

Following the release of Verdun (2015) and Tannenberg (2017), Isonzo is an “offensive” game that allows players to experience first-hand the battles that occurred between the Italians and the Austro-Hungarians in the Alps and the Isonzo River valley, culminating in the deadly Battle of Caporetto.

Speaking about the game in a press release, Jos Hoebe, creative director and co-founder of the WW1 Game Series, said:

The Battles of the Isonzo occurred between June 1915 and the latter months of 1917. Consisting of 12 battles, the fighting began following the signing of the 1915 Treaty of London. It’s estimated the Italians lost 645,000 men in the first 11 battles – roughly half of the country’s casualties over the course of World War I – while the Austro-Hungarian forces suffered 450,000 casualties.

Heavy ordnance of the Austro-Hungarian Navy ready to fire. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)

Isonzo was developed by Focus Entertainment and BlackMill Games. The former hopes it and the other two games in the series will help ensure notable historic events continue to receive attention.

With Verdun, the WW1 Game Series gave gamers a taste of the brutality of trench warfare, while Tannenberg moved the fighting to the Eastern Front. The series overall has sold over two million copies through Steam, the Playstation Store and Xbox.

Photo Credit: WW1 Game Series / YouTube

Isonzo was released on September 13, 2022. In celebration of its launch, the WW1 Game Series is offering a 10 percent discount to those who purchase it on Steam and Playstation. They also get access to an exclusive bonus pack, which Xbox pre-orders also received. This features two iconic uniforms (one for each side), as well as facial cosmetics “suitable for officers.”

The USS Texas (BB-35) saw more combat action in her lifetime than most other US battleships, seeing service in both World War I and II, and combining military prowess with ingenuity to aid in the Allied success on D-Day. One outside-the-box idea by those aboard the vessel that day put the entire crew’s lives in jeopardy – thankfully, it paid off.

New York-class super-dreadnought battleships

USS New York, 1915. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The USS Texas was a New York-class battleship commissioned in March 1914, just months before the outbreak of WWI. She was the second of two ships within the class, which had been designed to be successors to the lesser-armed Wyoming-class. Considered the US Navy’s first true super dreadnoughts, both Texas and her sister vessel, USS New York (B-34), were armed to the brim.

The vessels featured a primary armament of ten 14-inch deck guns, as well as a variety of secondary firepower, including four QF 3-pounder Hotchkiss saluting guns, twenty-one 5-inch guns and two QF 1-pounder “pom-poms.” Each also sported four torpedo tubes, capable of firing the Bliss-Leavitt Mark 3 Torpedo.

Along with being equipped with a wide-array of weaponry, Texas and New York were heavily-armored, and both were powered by water-tube boilers and triple-expansion steam engines. This afforded them a top speed of just over 24 MPH and a range of around 1,825 miles.

USS Texas‘ service during World War I

US Navy sailors aboard the USS Texas, 1915. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

As the United States didn’t enter the First World War until April 1917, the USS Texas first got a taste of service in the aftermath of the Tampico Incident, the result of growing tensions between US Navy sailors and Mexican soldiers. She transited to Mexico just shortly after her commissioning, without a typical shakedown cruise, and remained off the coast of Veracruz for two months

After a short time conducting operations with the Atlantic Fleet, Texas returned to the coast of Veracruz. In 1916, she became the first US battleship to mount anti-aircraft guns – 3-inch guns – and the first with the ability to control gunfire using directors and rangefinders. These tools are still used today, just in a much more high-tech capacity.

Interwar period

USS Texas in New York Harbor, 1918. (Photo Credit: Schenectady Museum / Hall of Electrical History Foundation / CORBIS / Getty Images)

The USS Texas returned to the US in late 1918, and after escorting US President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Conference  for the signing of the Treaty of Versailles underwent an overhaul and resumed her duties with the Atlantic Fleet.

In 1919, Texas became the first US battleship to launch an aircraft, a British-built Sopwith Camel, and served as a navigational reference and guard for the Curtiss NC-4, which became the first seaplane to conduct a trans-Atlantic flight. Shortly after, the super-dreadnought was transferred to the newly-established Pacific Fleet and given the designation BB-35.

Operation Torch

USS Texas (BB-35), 1943. (Photo Credit: Official U.S. Navy Photographer / National Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

When WWII began, the USS Texas operated as part of the Neutrality Patrol, before spending six months patrolling near Iceland and conducting convoy-escort missions. This was followed by Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of North Africa, during which she became one of only three US battleships to take part. The other two were the USS New York and Massachusetts (BB-59).

As part of Task Force 34.8 (TG 34.8), Texas transmitted Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower‘s “Voice of Freedom” radio broadcast, which urged France to not oppose the Allied landings. While she wasn’t immediately involved in action against the Germans, Texas was tasked with firing upon a Vichy France ammunition dump near Port Lyautey.

After her brief stint overseas, Texas returned to the US. In April 1944, she began training for her greatest operation yet: D-Day.

USS Texas (BB-35) makes a risky decision on D-Day

Allied vessels and barrage balloons off Omaha Beach, 1944. (Photo Credit: Galerie Bilderwelt / Getty Images)

After arriving in Normandy in early June 1944, the USS Texas and the British cruiser HMS Glasgow (C21) entered the Omaha Beach western fire support lane, near Pointe du Hoc. She was one of 702 ships in the US-British flotilla, and one of just seven battleships.

Texas began firing 14-inch shells in support of the 29th Infantry Division and the 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions. Within a span of just 34 minutes, she’d fired 255 shells – a shocking comparison to the 300 the vessel had fired during the entirety of Operation Torch. Texas then shifted her focus to more inland targets as the Allies moved from the landing beaches. Just 2,700 meters from shore, the battleship continued to bombard German positions throughout June 7-8.

What happened to the USS Texas (BB-35)?

USS Texas (BB-35) at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, 2022. (Photo Credit: Michael Barera / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

Following the Normandy invasion, the USS Texas assisted in the Battle of Cherbourg and Operation Dragoon. The vessel was then transferred to the Pacific Theater, where she provided naval gun support during the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Earning a total of five battle stars during WWII, she was decommissioned in 1948.

Texas was the first ever US battleship to become a permanent museum ship and the first to be declared a National Historic Landmark. She is also the only remaining WWI-era dreadnought and the last capital ship to have served in both world wars.

A book by Canadian historian Tim Cook has brought to light some disturbing evidence regarding a British program that saw the harvesting of slain Canadian and British soldiers’ organs – often without their consent.

In Lifesavers and Body Snatchers: Medical Care and the Struggle for Survival in the Great War, Cook shares a sinister past that was kept in the dark for over a century. During an interview with Matthew Galloway of the CBC, the historian shared that this obscure medical program was developed “to autopsy slain Canadian and British soldiers and to remove their damaged brains, their gassed lungs, their shattered femurs.”

How was death handled during the First World War?

The fighting that occurred during World War I saw around 8.5 million soldiers killed by either disease or wounds suffered on the battlefield, with other estimates placing the total at over double that amount. Highly-mechanized artillery, mustard gas and other innovations not only made the conflict more deadly than previous ones, but also impacted how the dead were treated.

Neuville-St Vaast German Military Cemetery in northern France. (Photo Credit: Ullstein Bild / Getty Images)

This sheer number of casualties had never been experienced before. Thousands of soldiers were buried on the battlefield in both mass and individual graves, often in the same spot where they died. In the early days of the war, the British Army had no register to note the burials, meaning many battlefields became filled with unmarked graves.

Those lucky enough to reach a hospital before their death were buried in a cemetery near the medical institutions, often beside cemeteries that pre-dated the war. Unlike those that occurred on the battlefield, these burials were recorded in an official register.

Wounded Austrian soldiers waiting outside of a field hospital during the Battles of Isonzo, 1915. (Photo Credit: Ann Ronan Picture Library / Photo12 / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

There was also the issue of identifying the dead, as many were rendered unrecognizable by the manner in which they died. The landscape itself also led to confusion over casualties, as heavy rain could turn battlefields into oceans of mud; accounts from soldiers who fought during the Battle of Passchendaele describe men drowning in flooded shell craters and sinking into the mud, never to be seen again.

Organ harvesting during WWI

Tim Cook, the chief historian and director of research at the Canadian War Museum, rifled through thousands of pages of documents that had been “accidentally” misplaced or mislabeled. His research revealed that a medical program initiated by the British saw the harvesting of 799 body parts and organs from deceased Canadian and British soldiers during WWI. They were then sent to London to be studied, before being returned to Canada.

Stretcher-bearers carrying a wounded soldier during the Battle of Pilckem Ridge, 1917. (Photo Credit: Daily Herald Archive / National Science & Media Museum / SSPL / Getty Images)

The program was intended to help teach doctors about the extreme injuries experienced on the battlefield, with the aim of saving as many lives as possible. Still, those running it described their work in incredibly morbid ways. One note Cook stumbled upon saw a doctor ask if a “brain that had been ripped apart by shrapnel” would be a good addition to their collection of specimens.

Most of the bodies used in the program were not those of unknown soldiers. In fact, Cook found lists, which featured the names of those who’d had their body parts removed. When he cross-referenced them with other records, there were no notes confirming that they had consented to the harvesting of their organs.

Nursing sisters from the Canadian Medical Army Corps aided in life-saving efforts during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Library and Archives Canada / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Cook explained to Galloway that the lack of consent was far less egregious than it would be today, saying, “When you enlisted in the First World War in the Canadian Expeditionary Force, your body was basically owned by the military.”

Britain’s harvesting of organs during WWI was kept a secret

When WWI came to an end, how Canadians remembered the fallen didn’t line up with the harvesting of their organs. As such, the program was kept under wraps. The body parts that had been removed were preserved and sent to McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, where they were used as medical teaching aids for the next three decades, before being destroyed around 1960.

Foot amputation at a Canadian base hospital during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

While the research conducted helped save thousands of lives by properly preparing medical professionals for the horrors of war, Cook shared that learning about the morbid program affected him greatly. “To read about a private who was shot through the head and died 11 days later in agony, but before he was buried, his brain was extracted — it affected me,” he revealed.

On December 6, 1917, the Tucker-class destroyer USS Jacob Jones (DD-61) was sailing from Brest, France to Queenstown, Ireland. However, the ship never reached its destination. Instead, it wound up at the bottom of the ocean, thanks to a German U-boat strike, where it lay undiscovered for over a century.

Building the USS Jacob Jones

The USS Jacob Jones was authorized in 1913 as the fifth vessel in the Tucker-class of destroyers. Named for the prominent US Navy officer who served during the War of 1812, her keel was laid down in 1914. She was commissioned just under two years later, with Lt. Cmdr. William S. Pye in command. When the US joined the First World War on April 6, 1917, Jacob Jones patroled the coast of Virginia.

USS Jacob Jones (DD-61), 1916. (Photo Credit: Naval History and Heritage Command / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

By May 7 of that year, the destroyer was en route to Europe, equipped with four 4-inch .50-caliber guns and eight 8-inch by 21-inch torpedo tubes. Her crew totaled around 100 men. Ten days later, Jacob Jones arrived in Queenstown, Ireland and began patrols in the Irish Sea.

The ruthless German U-boat strategy

Besides patrols and escorts, the USS Jacob Jones had to be cautious of German U-boats. The business of submarine warfare was complicated and ruthless. In the early stage of the war, U-boats surfaced before firing at a ship, giving those onboard enough time to escape the imminent strike.

Drawing of a submerged German U-boat in British waters during World War I. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

Beginning in February 1915, the Germans shifted their tactics to an unprecedented form of attack: firing at ships, including neutral and passenger vessels, without warning. The threat of a U-boat lurking beneath the surface, poised to strike at any moment, was an entirely new fear for US sailors onboard destroyers like Jacob Jones.

In just seven short months, Jacob Jones was destroyed by a U-boat strike. However, she performed several impressive rescue operations during this period. On July 8, 1917, she rescued 44 survivors from the British steamship Valetta, which sank after being struck by a U-boat. That same month, she saved another 26 passengers and crew from the sinking Dafila, and later rescued 309 survivors from the armed merchant cruiser RMS Orama (1911).

Sinking of the USS Jacob Jones

At 4:20 PM on December 6, 1917, the USS Jacob Jones sighted a torpedo wake in the water while she sailed toward Ireland. Cmdr. David W. Bagley ordered the destroyer to try to escape the torpedo, but it struck the starboard side three feet below the water line. With her fuel oil tank ruptured, the destroyer’s fate was sealed.

The wake of the torpedo leads from the bow of the German U-boat SM U-35 to strike an enemy ship. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)

Cmdr. Bagley later described the horrible scene in his diary, writing, “As the ship began sinking, I jumped overboard. The ship sank stern first and twisted slowly through nearly 180 degrees as she swung upright. From this nearly vertical position, bow in air to about the forward funnel, she went straight down. […] Immediate efforts were made to get the survivors on the rafts and then get rafts and boats together.”

Those who managed to escape on life rafts or debris struggled to stay alive in the frigid waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Out of the depths, a German U-boat SM U-53 surfaced. The vessel’s commander, Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose, took injured crew members Albert De Mello and John Francis Murphy as prisoners, before radioing in the location to the American base in Queenstown. His only condition for the Americans was to give his crew one hour to escape before rescue ships arrived on-scene.

Men slide down ropes during a last minute escape from a vessel that was torpedoed by a German U-boat, 1917. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)

While they waited to be rescued, several crewmen gave their lives to help their comrades survive. Lt. Stanton F. Kalk helped men out of the water and into lifeboats, actions which led to his eventual death from exhaustion and exposure. He was posthumously awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal.

Several hours after the sinking, the HMS Camellia (1915) and the American steamer Catalina began rescue operations, with the last of the survivors being rescued at 8:30 AM on December 7 by the HMS Insolent (1881).

The wreck of the USS Jacob Jones is discovered

In August 2022, a team of British divers announced they’d discovered the wreck of USS Jacob Jones some 400 feet below the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, around 60 nautical miles south of Cornwall, England. The team was able to positively identify the sunken vessel by locating her bell. The word “Jacob” was still visible on it, despite over 100 years of rust and water damage.

Speaking with Dive Magazine, Dominic Robinson, head of diving and training with the British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), said, “The ship was about 115 [meters] to the seabed and 110 [meters] to the top of the wreck. It was very clear that it was Jacob Jones immediately – you can see its name written on parts of the shipwreck.”

War movies have always been one of the most popular genres of film and, for many years, they unambiguously portrayed their conflicts as noble. Renowned filmmaker Stanley Kubrick changed that with 1957’s Paths of Glory. The movie, which was loosely based on the story of French soldiers during World War I, was beset with both controversy and critical acclaim.

Paths of Glory was based on a novel

Paths of Glory, 1957. (Photo Credit: MoviePics1001 / United Artists / MovieStillsDB)

Stanley Kubrick‘s film was inspired by Humphrey Cobb’s Paths of Glory, which was published in 1935. Cobb, who lived in Italy, England and the United States as a youth, enlisted in the Canadian Army at just 17 years old and fought for three years during the First World War. Stationed on the frontlines, he fought in the Battle of Amiens in 1918.

Upon the conflict’s conclusion, Cobb moved to New York City, where he worked as a copywriter. It was during this time that he wrote Paths of Glory. The novel, which follows three French soldiers who are court-martialed and executed to save their senior commanders, is based on the Souain Corporals Affair of 1915, in which four French corporals were executed for cowardice, to set an example to others serving on the front.

Souain Corporals Affair

Memorial to the four French corporals who were executed during the Souain Corporals Affair. (Photo Credit: Ikmo-Ned / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

In March 1915, the French were locked in a fierce campaign against the Germans on the Western Front, near Souain. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to take positions away from the enemy, with many French soldiers dying after charging German positions, which were fortified with barbed wire and machine guns, with only their bayonets.

Executions followed the failed assault

Funeral for Cpl. Théophile Maupas, one of those executed in 1915 during the Souain Corporals Affair. (Photo Credit: P. Hays, Avranches / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

A tribunal was held on the basis of the French Army’s Code of Military Regulations, which stated that no appeal of the decision was allowed. The tribunal occurred on March 16, 1915, during which all 24 men were sentenced to death.

Reaction to Paths of Glory

While Paths of Glory (1957) was a modest financial success, Stanley Kubrick’s direction was widely praised. (Photo Credit: Columbia Pictures / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Paths of Glory was by no means a phenomenon when it hit theaters. The film was considered a modest financial success, making its money back. Following its release, critics agreed that Kubrick was an exceptional director and was destined for big things.

Legacy of the Souain Corporals Affair and Paths of Glory

Paths of Glory, 1957. (Photo Credit: MoviePics1001 / United Artists / MovieStillsDB)

The French soldiers who stood up for themselves during the WWI assault are remembered much differently than they were over 100 years ago – and that change began before the book and movie were released. A monument honoring the four who were executed was erected in France in 1925, and upon their exoneration in 1934, their families received a symbolic franc for their hardship. In addition, they were given the ability to claim pension rights.

When Paris was the target of German bombers during the First World War, officials immediately began to devise ways to stop future air raids from occurring. Attention was put on anti-aircraft technology, but the enemy simply adapted their tactics. During night raids, pilots used topography to locate targets, and the city wasn’t all that difficult to spot. To combat this, a plan was put in place to create a “faux Paris” – however, construction was only partially completed by the time the conflict ended.

Faux Paris was the brainchild of an electrical engineer

Bombing of Paris, March 1918. (Photo Credit: Culture Club / Getty Images)

Germany first bombed Paris on August 30, 1914, and the attack impacted the way the City of Lights defended itself. Residents were no longer safe from the war, and while improvements were made to French anti-aircraft technology, German bombers switched to night raids to avoid daytime opposition.

Italian-born electrical engineer Fernand Jacopozzi was living in Paris during the First World War. In 1917, he joined the Défense Contre Avions (DCA), where he came up with a plan to create a faux Paris along the Seine, to trick the German bombers.

The Seine curves in on itself multiple times. As such, the fake city could be erected along the curve that mirrored where the real Paris is located. This was far enough away that no harm would come to residents. However, the replica would have to be executed with enough accuracy to truly fool the Germans.

Zone A: Train station

Map showing the false railway stations and streets of faux Paris, 1917. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The first area of faux Paris was named “Zone A.” It consisted of fake train stations surrounded by suburban housing. It would be set to the northeast of the real city. The area itself was surrounded by forests and was far enough away to prevent damage from any bombings.

The fake train was the real marvel of Zone A. Using wood, plastic and other inexpensive materials, it was built along a set of false tracks. Jacopozzi ensured it was outfitted with an intricate lighting system that, from above, actually made the stationary object look like it was moving.

Zone B: Faux Paris

Map showing the streets of faux Paris, 1917. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Zone B was intended to be a replica of Paris, located to the northwest. This was to be one of the project’s greatest difficulties, as Jacopozzi wanted to recreate the city’s most iconic architecture, including the Gare du Nord, the Arc de Triomphe and the Champs-Élysées. There isn’t, however, any evidence as to the inclusion of a replica Eiffel Tower.

Another struggle for Jacopozzi was recreating the City of Lights at night. As pilots used landmarks to navigate the area, they would undoubtedly be able to recognize Paris, given its lights display. If the engineer was unable to sufficiently recreate the city’s system, then the faux Paris would fail. Not only that, the expectation was that the real Paris, along with its residents, would cut their lights to cloak the city in darkness and draw attention to the recreation.

Zone C: Industrial district

Rue de Tolbiac, June 1918. (Photo Credit: photographie de presse / Agence Rol / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

Zone C would be located directly east of Paris and serve as an industrial area, where massive factories and chimneys would be set up. These structures were to be constructed from sheets of wood, as well as canvases painted in various colors.

The faux Paris disappeared

Effects of the last Zeppelin raid on Paris. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

When it came time to build the faux Paris, only work on Zone A truly got underway. The train and its railway were completed and looked remarkably realistic. Small portions of Zones B and C were also done, likely to test their effectiveness before going ahead with the rest of the work.