Category: World War 1

While dogfights first occurred during the Mexican Revolution, it wasn’t until the First World War that they became widespread. Upon returning home from service, pilots with the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps and the US Army Air Service were treated like heroes. Sadly, not all of them came back, including Frank Luke, a dashing and talented pilot who racked up an astonishing record before being shot down over France.

Frank Luke excelled as an athlete in his youth

Frank Luke enlisted in the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps in 1917. (Photo Credit: US Army Air Corps / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Frank Luke was born in May 1897 in Phoenix, Arizona Territory as the fifth of nine children. While growing up, he was a star athlete, playing basketball and football, captaining his school’s track team, and participating in bare-knuckle boxing. He also worked in copper mines to help support his family.

Luke enlisted with the Aviation Section, US Signal Corps in September 1917, months after the United States entered the First World War. After training in Texas and California, he was deployed to France with the rank of second lieutenant, where he underwent further training before being assigned to the 1st Pursuit Group, 27th Aero Squadron, which today is known as the US Air Force’s 27th Fighter Squadron, operating out of Joint Base Langley-Eustis, Virginia.

Frank Luke proved himself to be a remarkable pilot

Upon taking to the skies over France, Frank Luke proved himself to be a skilled pilot. (Photo Credit: Hawaii State Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Upon taking to the air, Frank Luke’s talent was immediately recognized, despite only flying in Europe for 17 days before his death. His commander, Maj. H.E. Hartney, later said of him:

“No one had the sheer contemptuous courage that boy possessed. He was an excellent pilot and probably the best flying marksman on the Western Front. We had any number of expert pilots and there was no shortage of good shots, but the perfect combination, like the perfect specimen of anything in the world, was scarce. Frank Luke was the perfect combination.”

Observation balloons and dangerous missions

Observation balloons were an important part of trench warfare during World War I. (Photo Credit: Christoph Herrmann / Benjamin Hirschfeld / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Throughout World War I, the German Army heavily relied on observational helium balloons. They were critical to the trench warfare that was occurring on the Western Front, as they allowed the Germans to see deep behind enemy lines. Given their importance, they were often protected by both anti-aircraft weaponry and a fleet of pursuit aircraft.

The American forces were eager to destroy these balloons. Despite the danger, Frank Luke and fellow pilot Lt. Joseph Frank “Fritz” Wehner regularly volunteered to take on the missions, with the former attacking the balloons and the latter serving as protective cover. Between September 12-28, 1918, the second lieutenant took out 14 balloons. In addition, he shot down four German aircraft, earning him the title of the “Arizona Balloon Buster.”

Frank Luke was shot down over France

Frank Luke destroyed 14 German observation balloons during World War I. (Photo Credit: National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Frank Luke’s final mission came in the early days of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. On September 29, 1918, he took off looking to shoot down additional German observation balloons, having experienced success the previous day.

Luke had destroyed three balloons near Dun-sur-Meuse when he was struck by a bullet fired from a machine gun position on a nearby hill. It entered his shoulder, causing him to enter a tailspin toward the ground. Despite what was happening, the pilot strafed a group of German soldiers positioned beneath him.

Recipient of the Medal of Honor

Luke Air Force Base, Arizona was named for Frank Luke. (Photo Credit: Airman 1st Class James Hensley / 56th Fighter Wing Public Affairs / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Following his death, Frank Luke was awarded the Medal of Honor, which his family donated to the National Museum of the US Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, and posthumously promoted to the rank of first lieutenant. His additional decorations included the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Aero Club Medal for Bravery and the Italian War Cross. He was also named the nation’s greatest air hero by the American Society for the Promotion of Aviation in 1930.

Hussars originated in Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries and were made up of light cavalry soldiers. Though military in nature, they can easily be compared to a European version of the American cowboy. Legendary German Field Marshal August von Mackensen was dubbed “The Last Hussar” during his service, which included commanding units throughout the First World War, despite being in his 60s.

August von Mackensen’s upbringing

August von Mackensen attended the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg, before choosing a career in the military. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)

August von Mackensen was born in Haus Leipnitz, in the Prussian Province of Saxony, in 1849. At 20 years old, he volunteered to serve with the Prussian 2nd Life Hussars Regiment, seeing action during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. While participating in the conflict, he led a charge while on a reconnaissance patrol north of Orléans, which saw him awarded the Iron Cross Second Class and promoted to the rank of second lieutenant.

Following the war, von Mackensen attended the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg. However, he found himself drawn back to service with the Imperial German Army and rejoined his old regiment in 1873.

Continued success with the Imperial German Army

Kaiser Wilhelm II was impressed by August von Mackensen and named him his adjutant. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Getty Images)

In 1879, August von Mackensen married Dorthea “Doris” von Horn. She was the sister of a slain comrade, and her father, Karl von Horn, was one of the most powerful and influential administrative officials in East Prussia. In addition to his happy marriage, von Mackensen found a key mentor in Minister of War Julius von Verdy du Vernois. His star quickly rose, and in 1891 he was appointed to the General Staff, despite not having the required experience.

Kaiser Wilhelm II was also impressed with von Mackensen. In 1893, the German emperor gave him command of the 1st Life Hussars Regiment, and later made von Mackensen his adjutant. This was an exceptional honor, as he was the first commoner to serve in the role. He performed this duty for three and a half years, during which he met high-ranking officials across Germany and the world.

August von Mackensen’s service during World War I

August von Mackensen proved himself to be a master tactician during World War I. (Photo Credit: Bruckmann, F. / Grosser Bilderatlas des Weltkrieges / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

When the First World War broke out in July 1914, August von Mackensen was 65 years old and still in charge of the XVII Army Corps. He was also one of the most experienced commanders in the Imperial German Army. Right off the bat, he led his men in a number of offensives, including the battles of Tannenberg and Gumbinnen. That September, he took charge during the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes.

In August 1915, von Mackensen commanded his men during the Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive, one of the Central Powers’ most important victories of the war. After continued fighting against the Russians on the Eastern Front, von Mackensen participated in the Serbian Campaign, before going on to oversee the Romanian Campaign. Before long, he was known for being one of the world’s foremost military tactician.

Remaining out of the public eye during the interwar period

August von Mackensen was a supporter of the German Monarchy. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

Following the signing of the armistice, August von Mackensen was arrested by the Allies for being a war criminal and held until November 1919. The following year, he retired from the Imperial German Army and opted to remain out of the public eye, as he disagreed with the establishment of the new parliamentary system and the restrictions placed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles.

Following the war, Germany was in shambles, and there were differing opinions on how to best move forward. In 1924, von Mackensen decided to use his status as a war hero to support both the monarchy and nationalist groups, frequently appearing in his Life Hussars uniform.

August von Mackensen’s legacy

Despite being a supporter of the German Monarchy, August von Mackensen didn’t oppose the incoming regime. (Photo Credit: Gerhard Riebicke / ullstein bild / Getty Images)

August von Mackensen supported Paul von Hindenburg during the 1932 German election. However, when the Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ Party came into power, he didn’t directly oppose the regime, later becoming one of its most visible supporters. That being said, the public were never really sure where he stood, as his actions brought about mixed messages.

Aircraft made their combat debut during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12. Just a few years later, during the First World War, they appeared in much larger numbers. To be effective, they needed the ability to shoot down enemy aircraft, which is something they accomplished, in part, through the use of air gunners.

World War I: Target shooting and reconnaissance

Aviator Georges Guynemer aiming a forward-firing gun attached to a Morane-Saulnier L, 1916. (Photo Credit: Agence Rol / Gallica Digital Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Air gunners serving during the First World War were quickly trained. The process included camera guns, to see if they hit their marks, as well as paper targets, and it wasn’t long after that they took to the air in combat. These gunners performed a number of jobs outside of their primary role. They served as a second pair of eyes for pilots and were tasked with reconnaissance, keeping an eye out for enemy positions.

A number of aircraft were designed to house gunners during World War I, primarily in the nose. These included the Vickers Vimy, Martin MB-1, Caproni Ca.1 and the Handley Page Type 0. The first instances of tail gunners occurred in the Russian Empire, with the development of the Sikorsky Ilya Muromets. Another notable example of an aircraft making use of rear gunners was the Handley Page V/1500, but it wasn’t introduced until the final years of the war.

World War II: Strategic bombings

German air gunner manning the nose gun turret of an aircraft. (Photo Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-S52911 / Stempka / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 de)

Air gunners continued to serve during the Second World War. The strategic bombing of key enemy positions, such as ports, cities, railways and industrial areas, became much more common, and air gunners, again, served as extra eyes. The bombers tasked with performing these air raids often flew through fortified areas, so it was gunners’ task to fire back if the aircraft came under attack.

Many of the air gunners who served during the First World War worked by themselves. As bombers got bigger toward the start of World War II, however, more could fit onboard. For example, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, fitted with 0.50 Browning M2 machine guns, could carry a number of air gunners within its crew of 10, including waist and turret gunners.

Being an air gunner was incredibly dangerous

Royal Air Force (RAF) air gunner in training, 1943. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

The job of an air gunner could be brutal at times. They were made to sit in cramped spaces on flights that lasted up to 10 hours. Hearing was also a problem, as they were often stuck with the booming sound of their aircraft’s engines in their ears. Above all, serving as an air gunner was incredibly dangerous, with tens of thousands killed over the course of the Second World War.

Along with being the most common position, serving as a tail gunner was also the most risky, as the Luftwaffe preferred to take on opposing aircraft from the rear. On top of this, there was also little protection from the elements, meaning tail gunners oftentimes suffered frostbite. Nose gunners were less common, as the feature was largely kept to multi-engine aircraft, while the majority of heavy bombers and strike aircraft featured a spot for top gunners to position themselves.

A number of air gunners became aces

Flight Sgt. J. Morgan serving as the tail gunner onboard an Avro Lancaster. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force Official Photographer / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The names of some of US Army Air Force’s greatest WWII-era pilots are etched in memory, including Francis “Gabby” Gabreski, Gregory “Pappy” Boyington and Joe Foss. To be deemed an air ace, an aviator needed to shoot down at least five enemy aircraft. Among the air gunners with the most impressive wartime records were:

• Staff Sgt. Michael Arooth of 527th Bomb Squadron, 8th Air Force – 17 victories (at least) over the course of 14 missions.
• Tech. Sgt. Arthur Benko of 374th Bomb Squadron, 308th Bomber Group (Heavy) – 18 victories against the Japanese.
• Staff Sgt. Donald Crossley of 333rd Bomb Squadron, 95th Bomb Group, 8th Air Force – 12 victories.

Many more air gunners achieved their fair share of kills. Many of them have been overshadowed by the exploits of fighter pilots and those manning the aircraft on which they served, but it can be argued that, without their efforts, the Allies’ success against the Axis powers would have been less than it was.

The air gunners who served in the World Wars left a lasting legacy

Ball turret beneath an aircraft. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force Official Photographer / Air Ministry Second World War Official Collection / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Throughout the course of the First and Second World Wars, air gunners were an invaluable asset. As time went on, however, technology advanced and aircraft were eventually able to fire their guns without the need for individual operators, meaning the role of air gunners became less necessary.

That being said, the position still exists. Some crew members onboard helicopters are charged with firing weapons, although they tend to serve in other positions, such as crew chief or an observer. As well, air gunners also serve onboard gunships, such as the Lockheed AC-130. Though not directly responsible with manning the weapons, they do load ammunition and are trained to fire them if a malfunction occurs.

It’s a well known fact the First World War was one of the deadliest conflicts of human history, with only World War II having a higher number of war dead. However, the Great War was different, as it was the first time the world fought on such a large scale. This also meant the total number of deaths experienced was different, with towns losing large portions of their population. It’s this fact that makes the history of Britain’s “Thankful Villages” even more incredible.

Heavy casualties were experienced in World War I

King George V and Field Marshal Douglas Haig inspecting the graves of British soldiers killed at Ypres Salient, 1922. (Photo Credit: PA Images / Getty Images)

Interestingly, the United Kingdom’s military fatalities during both World Wars didn’t follow the same pattern as other countries. Internationally, more servicemen deaths occurred in World War II, but the UK suffered significantly more during the First – 880,000 between 1914-18 versus 384,000 from 1939-45.

With so many dead, it’s no wonder families across Britain heavily grieved their losses at the end of the Great War, with many villages erecting monuments in honor of those who never made it home. Interesting, there were 53 dubbed “Thankful Villages,” as they suffered no military fatalities during the conflict. This was an impressive feat, given the heavy use of Pals battalions in World War I.

Thankful Villages

Tablet inlaid at the parish church in Culpho, Suffolk, England. (Photo Credit: Geography Photos / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

It’s with instances like these that Thankful Villages take on a whole new meaning. It wasn’t until the 1930s that the term was first used. Writer and journalist Arthur Mee wrote a series of guides, titled The King’s England, which detailed information about the various counties in England and included his observations on these Thankful Villages. At the time, he estimated that, out of 16,000 British villages, 32 met the criteria, but was only able to confirm 24. It’s now known this number is much higher.

Of one village, he wrote, “Thirty men went from Catwick to the Great War and thirty came back, though one left an arm behind.” In another – Arkholme, Lancashire – 59 went to war and every single one returned. Knowlton, Kent also stands out, being declared the winner of a contest set by the Weekly Dispatch to find which town had sent the most men to fight – 12 out of 39 community members, all of whom returned.

“Doubly thankful”

Church in Middleton on the Hill, Herefordshire, one of the few villages to be “doubly thankful,” 2007. (Photo Credit: Trevor Rickard / Middleton on the Hill Church / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)

Of the Thankful Villages throughout the UK, there are a number considered to be “doubly thankful.” This name was given to the towns that not only had all of their WWI personnel return, but also all those deployed during WWII. Of the confirmed villages, there’s believed to be only 17 that didn’t lose men in either war. One of these was Catwick, which had 30 men fight and return home.

Thankful Villages have been identified throughout England and Wales, but none have been located in Ireland or Scotland, despite research being conducted there. Of the three Welsh towns, only Llanfihangel-y-Creuddyn and Herbrandston suffered no fatalities in WWII, as well.

Thankful Villages outside of the United Kingdom

Church in Thierville, Normandy, France, 2017. (Photo Credit: Gérard / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

While Thankful Villages are predominantly a concept created in the UK, there’s one exceptional case in France that deserves to be mentioned. The fighting there during WWI was bloody and brutal, with 71 percent of those having fought in the conflict either dying or suffering various injuries; 4.3 percent of the country’s entire population perished.

There were countless stories of intense bravery to come out of the First World War. However, John “Barney” Hines had a much different approach to how he dealt with the Germans. A soldier with the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), he used his propensity for sticky fingers to steal copious amounts of enemy goods, becoming something of a celebrity in the process.

John Hine’s early life

Australian infantrymen moving up the line past camouflaged tanks during the Battle of Polygon Wood, September 1917. (Photo Credit: John Warwick Brooke / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

John Hines was born Johannes Heim on October 11, 1878 in Liverpool, England. His parents were German immigrants who’d move to the United Kingdom to find work. Hines married Hannah Maher in 1899, having two children with her. Crew lists from this period indicate he spent a significant amount of time at sea, traveling between Liverpool and North America.

Sometime between 1903-06, Hines left his wife and traveled to New Zealand. Between the time he moved there and his obtaining passage to Australia in 1915, he racked up a number of criminal charges, including vagrancy, threatening behaviour, assault and theft.

John Hines enlists in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF)

John Hines surrounded by German equipment he looted during the Battle of Polygon Wood, September 1917. (Photo Credit: Frank Hurley / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Perhaps to get away from his criminal charges, John Hines traveled to Australia, arriving in Sydney on August 18, 1915. He tried enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force soon after, initially lying about his age and claiming to be 28 years old. However, he was deemed medically unfit for service and subsequently discharged.

‘Souvenir King’

Manipulated photograph consisting of several photographs taken during the Battle of Polygon Wood. (Photo Credit: Frank Hurley / State Library of New South Wales / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 AU)

While serving, John Hines gained a reputation as both a devoted and troublesome soldier. When in battle, he was considered extremely effective. His commander, Arthur Samuel Allen, described him as “a tower of strength to the 45th Battalion… While he was in the line.” Off the line, he was described by another as being “two pains in the neck,” as he frequently went missing without leave, forged entries in his pay book and had charges laid against him for drunkenness.

Battle of Polygon Wood

Frank Hurley took the now-famous photograph of John Hines during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)

John Hines was injured during the Battle of Messines in June 1917, but was soon back on the frontlines for the Battle of Polygon Wood, where he truly earned his fame. It was an Australian component of the Third Battle of Ypres, which saw them advance with artillery toward the German lines.

John Hines returns home

Australian soldiers leaving to fight, December 1914. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)

It was during the spring of 1918, when John Hines was fighting in the Battles of Dernancourt, that the soldier fell victim to a gas attack. He was sent for medical treatment at the rear of the front, but the facility was attacked by German aircraft. Hines suffered further injuries when a piece of shrapnel got lodged in his heel, but that didn’t stop him from putting together a makeshift crutch and helping staff move patients to safety.

John Hines’ life following World War I

John Hines, April 1950. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Truth Newspaper / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Despite the fame his souvenir-ing brought him and the admiration he received, John Hines lived in poverty upon his return to Australia. He resided in a tent-style dwelling with a small garden surrounded by a fence, from which captured German helmets hung. Much of his income came from selling the souvenirs he found.

Prior to the Second World War, Jewish soldiers actively fought in the German Army. This included World War I and a number of conflicts fought by the Prussians throughout the 19th century. The following is a look at what happened to these veterans during World War II, and how their prior military service didn’t always protect them from the Führer’s anti-semitic beliefs and policies.

Service of Jewish German soldiers prior to the World Wars

Willi Ermann, a Jewish German soldier who served in World War I. He later lost his life at Auschwitz during the Second World War. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Prior to the World Wars, Jewish soldiers served in the Prussian Army in a number of conflicts, the first of which was the German Campaign of 1813 – better known as the Wars of Liberation. Up against French leader Napoleon Bonaparte, the year-long war put an end to the overarching power of the First French Empire.

This victory was followed by service in the Prussian Army during the Second Schleswig War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). The latter led to the establishment of the German Empire, under which the Jewish soldiers who’d served were not afforded equal rights. They were barred from officer and government ranks, with the only exceptions being in the likes of the Kingdom of Bavaria and Hamburg.

Between 1880 and 1910, it’s estimated that 30,000 Jewish German soldiers served in the Prussian Army, the highest-ranking of which was Meno Burg, who’d achieved the rank of Judenmajor (Jew major).

Jewish German Soldiers distinguish themselves during World War I

Jewish soldiers during a Hanukkah celebration in Poland, 1916. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The outbreak of the First World War signaled to Jewish German soldiers the opportunity to be treated equal to the country’s non-Jews. They also felt the fighting on the Eastern Front would allow them to liberate Eastern European Jews from the persecution they faced.

At the start of the conflict, some 12,000 Jewish soldiers volunteered to serve with the Imperial German Army, a number that ballooned to 100,000 by the end of the war. Of that, 70,000 fought on the frontlines, with 3,000 being promoted to officer ranks, which they were only allowed to hold in the reserves. It’s estimated 12,000 German Jewish soldiers were killed in action (KIA).

Rise of the NSDAP during the interwar period

Jewish soldiers during a service for Yom Kippur in Belgium, 1915. (Photo Credit: History & Art Images / Getty Images)

Following the conclusion of World War I, many Jewish German soldiers believed their service had proved their patriotism. Many were held in high-regard and accepted as members of veterans’ organizations, including the Reichsbund jüdischer Frontsoldaten (Reich Federation of Jewish Front-Line Soldiers), dedicated to promoting the sacrifices made by German Jews during the war.

Following the rise of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) in 1933, Jewish veterans were protected against certain measures, as German President Paul von Hindenburg had intervened on their behalf. This changed, however, following his death in 1935.

Crackdown of Jewish German soldiers during World War II

Jewish German soldiers during an outdoor service for Yom Kippur, World War I. (Photo Credit: Center for Jewish History, NYC / Wikimedia Commons / No Restrictions)

Upon the outbreak of World War II, Jewish veterans believed their service in the military would protect them against increased crackdowns across the country. However, in 1940, a law was passed, which stated Jews and those with two Jewish grandparents were to be kicked out of the armed forces.

That’s not to say Jewish soldiers didn’t fight in the German Army during the conflict.  Some were drafted, while others willingly served in honor of their fathers who’d enlisted during WWI. Many of these men felt the Nuremberg Laws didn’t apply to them, and some went so far as to falsify their papers, so they could serve. There were even a handful of soldiers who believed their service would spare the lives of their family members, which proved to not be the case.

Hugo Gutmann

Hugo Gutmann, 1918. (Photo Credit: Bavarian War Ministry / Bavarian State Archive / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Hugo Gutmann was a Jewish military officer who served in the Bavarian Army during the First World War. He was transferred to the reserves in 1904 and recalled when the conflict broke out, eventually rising to the rank of lieutenant. Gutmann was also appointed as a company commander and acting adjutant for the “List” Regiment’s artillery battalion. He was a highly decorated soldier, having been presented with the Iron Cross Second and First Class in 1914 and ’15, respectively.

While in this role, Gutmann served as the future Führer’s direct superior, going so far as to recommend him for the Iron Cross First Class, which he received in August 1918. Following WWI, he was demobilized from the military and served as a reserve lieutenant. However, in 1935, under the recently-passed Nuremberg Laws, the soldier lost his German citizenship and veteran roles in the Army, due to his Jewish faith.

A few years later, Gutmann was arrested by the Gestapo, but released after the SS learned of his military background. He and his family subsequently left Germany and emigrated to Belgium, before moving to the United States prior to the German invasion of the Low Countries. He lived in the US until his death in June 1962, working as a typewriter salesman.

Berthold Guthmann

Berthold Guthmann with his sister, Anna, and brother, Eduard. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Berthold Guthmann was a Jewish soldier who volunteered to serve as part of the Imperial German Army at the outbreak of WWI, along with his two brothers. He subsequently joined Schutzstaffel 3 of the Luftstreitkräfte (Imperial German Air Service) as a gunner and observer, and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class for his actions in combat.

Following the war, Guthmann became an attorney in a large Jewish community. In 1938, shortly after the events of Kristallnacht, he was arrested and sent to Buchenwald for a brief period of time. When the Jews living in Wiesbaden, Hesse were deported to Theresienstadt, his was one of three families initially spared. However, they were deported in late 1942, with Guthmann being executed at Auschwitz almost immediately after his arrival.

Leo Baeck

Leo Baeck, 1951. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)

Serving as a chaplain in the Imperial German Army during the First World War, Leo Baeck was a proponent for the Jewish people and their faith. When the NSDAP came into power in 1933, he became president of the Reichsvertretung der Deutschen Juden (Reich Representation of German Jews), which became the government-controlled Reichsvereinigung (Reich Association of Jews in Germany) following Kristallnacht.

While the majority know Bela Lugosi for his portrayal of Count Dracula in the 1931 film adaptation of Bram Stoker‘s novel, few are aware of his service with the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War. The famed actor spoke little of this time in his life, but did reveal a few tidbits to his co-stars over the years.

Bela Lugosi’s early life and stage debut

Bela Lugosi, 1900. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Retronaut.com / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Bela Lugosi was born Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó on October 20, 1882 in Lugo, Hungary. When he was 12 years old, he dropped out of school, ran away from home and took on a number of manual labor jobs, before beginning his stage acting career in 1902. His earliest known roles were in provincial theaters during the 1903-04 season.

In 1911, Lugosi moved to Budapest, where he appeared in productions with the National Theatre of Hungary. Between 1913-19, he had an illustrious acting career, putting on an estimated 172 stage performances.

Bela Lugosi’s service with the Austro-Hungarian Army

Bela Lugosi, 1932. (Photo Credit: Mabel Livingstone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

While he rarely discussed this time in his life, Bela Lugosi actively served during the First World War, volunteering with the 43rd Royal Hungarian Infantry Regiment in 1914 as a ski patrolman. As a member of the Austro-Hungarian Army, he was sent to the Eastern Front, where he and his comrades were constantly locked in skirmishes with the Russians.

Among the most disastrous engagements for the Austro-Hungarian Army was the Carpathian Winter Campaign of 1915. This stemmed from fighting that had occurred between the Russians and Germans during the Battle of Tannenburg, after which the former moved into the border region of Austria-Hungary. During fighting at Rohatyn, in what’s now western Ukraine, Lugosi suffered his first injury.

Following his recovery, he joined the effort to drive the Russians out of the southern passes of the Carpathians. While this would ultimately end in a stalemate between the two sides, it was costly for the Austro-Hungarians. In what has been described as “the largest barrage yet attempted on the Eastern Front,” German guns and those of other Central Powers fired an estimated 750,000 shells onto Russian positions.

Fleeing Hungary following the revolution

Bela Lugosi, 1931. (Photo Credit: John Springer Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)

Following World War I, Bela Lugosi became involved in a radical actors guild, which called for the nationalization of theater in Hungary and an end to the system that gave actors roles based on seniority. When the Hungarian Soviet Republic under Béla Kun collapsed in 1919, his activism left him vulnerable to imprisonment and execution, prompting him and his first wife to flee to Vienna, after which they settled in Berlin.

While in Weimar-era Germany, Lugosi starred in a number of silent films. In December 1920, he found a job aboard a merchant ship bound for New Orleans, Louisiana and made his way to New York City. He was admitted into the United States through Ellis Island in 1921, after which he formed a small stock company with fellow Hungarian actors, which toured the East Coast and put on plays for fellow immigrants.

Dracula (1931) becomes an instantaneous hit

Dracula, 1931. (Photo Credit: DrPeach / MovieStillsDB)

Despite the praise he received from critics for his stage portrayal of Count Dracula, Bela Lugosi wasn’t Universal Pictures’ first choice when the decision was made to turn the book into a film. Instead, the likes of Paul Muni, John Wray and Chester Morris were considered.

Lew Ayres was the first person hired to take on the role, but was replaced by Robert Ames after he was cast in a different movie. Ames was subsequently replaced by David Manners, who later took on the role of Jonathan Harker. It was only then that Lugosi was tapped by director Todd Browning.

Bela Lugosi’s declining acting career

The Black Cat, 1934. (Photo Credit: SpinnersLibrarian / MovieStillsDB)

In the mid-1930s, Bela Lugosi suffered a dip in his career, with a much-needed popularity boost coming with the double feature of Dracula and Frankenstein (1931) at a California theater. This led Universal Pictures to re-release both nationally and hire Lugosi for a number of new films, including 1939’s Son of Frankenstein.

In total, Lugosi would star in 18 movies for the movie studio.

Death and legacy

Bela Lugosi’s grave at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. (Photo Credit: IllaZilla / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

On August 16, 1956, Bela Lugosi passed away of a heart attack at his Los Angeles apartment. His body was found by his wife, with the medical examiner concluding the 73-year-old had passed away peacefully in his sleep. While a rumor spread that he’d been clutching the script for an upcoming Ed Wood film, this was later proven to be untrue.

Lugosi was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. According to his son, the actor was buried in full costume, wearing a cape and his Dracula ring. While it was believed he’d personally requested this be done, Bela Lugosi Jr. has said on multiple occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision themselves, adding that it’s likely what his father would have wanted.

Throughout World War I, women took on a whole host of new roles to contribute to the war effort, including nursing, firefighting and engineering. Unlike many others, Anna Coleman Ladd didn’t work in a traditional field. Rather, she used her penchant for sculpting to create custom masks for soldiers who’d suffered facial deformities as a result of injuries sustained in combat.

Anna Coleman Ladd’s work as a sculptor

Anna Coleman Ladd, 1901. (Photo Credit: Archives of American Art / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Anna Coleman Ladd, née Watts, was born in Pennsylvania on July 15, 1878. She was educated overseas, studying sculpting in Rome and Paris, before moving back Stateside to study at the Boston Museum School. She eventually married Dr. Maynard Ladd in England, after which the pair moved to Boston. One of her pieces, Triton Babies, is featured in a fountain at the Boston Public Garden.

In 1914, Coleman Ladd joined the Guild of Boston Artists as a founding member, with whom she exhibited much of her work. Her career continued until 1936, when she retired to California with her husband, dying only three years later.

Combat and the resulting facial deformities

Facial masks created by Anna Coleman Ladd, 1918. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The advancements in military technology during WWI were useful, as they allowed for more aggressive and effective combat. On the other hand, these weapons led to horrific injuries that were difficult to recover from. As explained by a doctor who’d served on the front, “Every fracture in this war is a huge open wound with a not merely broken but shattered bone at the bottom of it.”

This assessment can also be applied to the human face. Fred Houdlett Albee, a surgeon during the conflict, wrote, “It is a fairly common experience for the maladjusted person to feel like a stranger to his world. It must be unmitigated hell to feel like a stranger to yourself.” For context, severe facial disfigurement was one of few injuries for which veterans earned a full pension in the United Kingdom, as the men were “condemned to isolation” because of their condition.

Mastering the technique

Anna Coleman Ladd with a soldier wearing one of her masks, 1918. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In 1917, Anna Coleman Ladd discovered the work of Londoner Francis Wood, who was making masks for wounded soldiers. After approaching him, the two began working to improving his technique. Wanting to continue this work, she obtained permission to go overseas and work with the American Red Cross, eventually opening the Studio for Portrait Masks.

It was important to Coleman Ladd that the space was welcoming for soldiers, so she designed it to include flowers, posters, and both the French and American flags.

The sculptor worked alongside four assistants to make life-like masks for injured servicemen. She was exceptional at her craft, taking plaster casts of the men’s faces, so she could accurately replicate the facial features from their “good” side. The mask would then be made from copper and painted to match the color of the soldier’s skin – natural hair was even used to create eyelashes, mustaches and eyebrows. From start to finish, it took a month to complete the finished product.

The masks were usually held to the face by glasses or string. It reached a point where Coleman Ladd was so good at creating them that she was able to do so by simply looking at photos of the servicemen prior to them suffering their injuries. This set her studio apart from Wood, and she was generally credited with producing finer work.

Anna Coleman Ladd changed many lives

French soldier fitted with one of Anna Coleman Ladd’s masks, 1918. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

It’s recorded that roughly 3,000 French soldiers received corrective masks, of which Anna Coleman Ladd made 185. For her work, she was awarded the Croix de Chevalier de l’Ordre de la Légion d’Honneur and the Serbian Order of Saint Sava. Although she made many masks, none survived into the present day – they either fell apart due to use or their wearers were buried with them.

The masks Coleman Ladd created undoubtedly changed many soldiers’ lives. Aside from her awards, the sculptor received many letters from clients, who praised her work and thanked her for what she did for them.

One serviceman expressed his thankfulness that his wife no longer found him repulsive, while another wrote, “My gratitude to you will last forever and I will never forget for I wear and will always wear the wonderful fittings which you came up with and it is thanks to you that I can survive being under fire. It’s thanks to you that I am not buried deep in an old veterans’ hospital.”

When the First World War began in 1914, it quickly became apparent that newer, more advanced weapons were needed. This was particularly true on the frontlines, where infantrymen had to contend with not only mazes of trenches, but fortified bunkers and machine gun nests. In response, the French Army developed the 37 mm M1916. While it was intended to excel on the Western Front, the opposite proved to be true, causing it to become all but obsolete by the middle of World War II.

Developing a potent infantry weapon

Military personnel manning a 37 mm M1916 fitted with a telescopic sight at the Army Specialists School, Langres, northeastern France, 1918. (Photo Credit: American Official Photographer / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The 37 mm M1916, officially known as the Canon d’Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP, was developed by the French Army in 1915, with the intention of providing infantrymen with an effective weapon that could both disrupt enemy action and clear the path for the advancing line. Additionally, the service wanted to provide a tool that could knock out enemy positions, such as barbed wire fences and enemy machine gun nests.

Atelier de Construction de Puteaux (APX) was tasked with designing and manufacturing the weapon, producing 4,000. Along with use on the frontlines, it was also tested aboard aircraft, including the British Beardmore W.B.V. single-engine shipborne biplane fighter prototype and the French Salmson-Moineau S.M.1 A3 three-seat biplane long range reconnaissance aircraft. It was quickly removed from the former after it was proven to be too dangerous an addition.

37 mm M1916 specs

37 mm M1916 on display at the Brussels Army Museum, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Megapixie / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The 37 mm M1916 was a 104-pound gun and recoil mechanism mounted upon an 84-pound carriage. With the addition of wheels, it could be broken down and carried by four soldiers, two of whom served as its gun crew, taking the roles of aimer and loader.

Use on the frontlines during World War I

37 mm M1916 firing position along a second-line trench in Dieffmatten, Germany, 1918. (Photo Credit: Cpl. Allen H. Hanson / Defense Imagery / United States Armed Forces / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Over the course of its service history, the 37 mm M1916 was used by forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Belgium, France, Poland, Italy and North Vietnam, the latter of which equipping it during the First Indochina War. However, the weapon saw much of its action on the Western Front during the First World War.

In May 1918, the French deployed the Renault FT-17 to the frontlines. The world’s first modern tank, it could travel at 5 MPH while providing much-needed mobile fire support for troops fighting the Germans during the war’s final Allied offensive. Around half of the FT-17s that saw action were equipped with the 37 mm M1916, while the other 50 percent saw their firepower come from 8 mm Hotchkiss M1914 machine guns.

Issues with the 37 mm M1916 on the Western Front

French Army soldiers firing a 37 mm M1916 at the shooting range in Sains-en-Amiénois, northern France, 1916. (Photo Credit: Amédée Eywinger / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While it was developed for use on the Western Front, the 37 mm M1916 actually proved to be a hindrance. At 104 pounds, it was difficult to transport across the muddy conditions of No Man’s Land, and its large size meant it was difficult to transport across the trenches that lined the frontlines. The weapon’s weight also meant its operators were often unable to keep up with the fast-paced nature of the conflict.

On top of this, the 37 mm M1916 wasn’t the best at performing the task it was designed for: destroying enemy machine gun emplacements. Mortars proved to be far more effective. This, paired with their lighter weight, made them the preferred choice.

Superseded by more effective weapons during World War II

US military personnel training with a 37 mm gun M3 at Camp Carson, Colorado, 1943. (Photo Credit: Franklin D. Roosevelt Library / U.S. National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

During the interwar period, the US Army created infantry regiments with howitzer companies, which were armed with a host of support weapons, including the 37 mm M1916. However, only the National Guard could afford to maintain them, with the Army having to settle for platoons, which trained using a cost-effective .22-caliber sub-caliber device. These units were disbanded in 1941 and replaced by anti-tank platoons, with the majority of the 37 mm M1916s either being scrapped or placed in storage.

When the US joined the Second World War following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the 37 mm M1916 had largely been replaced by the more effective 37 mm gun M3, the first anti-tank gun fielded by the country’s forces in numbers. The Americans fighting in the Philippines Campaign in 1941-42 did occasionally man the WWI-era weapon, but only because they were running low on available M3s.

Type 11 37 mm infantry support gun

Type 11 37 mm infantry support gun operated by the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), 1930s. (Photo Credit: Unknown – Possibly Japanese Military Photographer / Glorious Army Picture Book / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Following WWI, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) purchased a production license to manufacture their own variant of the 37 mm M1916. Dubbed the Type 11, it provided infantry support for troops fighting in the Second Sino-Japanese War and WWII.

Production of the Type 11 occurred between 1922-37, with the weapon itself being equipped from 1922-45. It required a crew of 10 to operate – four gunners and six support personnel – and fired both the powerful Type 12 HE and a rather ineffective anti-tank shell. Along with being carried onto the front by soldiers for use against enemy machine gun positions, the Type 11 was equipped by the Japanese Renault NC27 and Type 89 I-Go medium tanks.

A number of machine guns saw action during the First World War. While the Vickers, Maxim and Lewis guns are likely the ones that come to mind, there’s another that stands out simply because of how unusual its design was: the Schwarzlose MG. Developed for the Austro-Hungarian Army, this machine gun not only saw use by infantrymen, but was adapted to feature aboard ships and on aircraft, and was even installed in military fortifications.

Development of the Schwarzlose MG

Schwarzlose MG being manned by soldiers stationed in the Ukrainian People’s Republic, 1918. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Schwarzlose MG, also known as the Maschinengewehr M, was designed in 1904 by Prussian firearms designer Andreas Wilhelm Schwarzlose, who rose to fame for developing a blowback-operated machine gun. The weapon entered production in 1905 as the M1905, and was steadily improved upon as the years went on.

The Schwarzlose used by soldiers during World War I entered production in 1908 and was manufactured by Steyr Arms and Fegyver-és-Gépgyár (FÉG) for a decade. In 1918, active sales of the weapon ended with the close of the conflict.

Schwarzlose MG specs

Schwarzlose MG on display at a museum. (Photo Credit: OlliFoolish / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Schwarzlose MG was a belt-fed, water-cooled machine gun that resembled those within the Maxim family. However, it was given a much simpler design and function, meaning it was inexpensive to manufacture, allowing for the necessary quantities to be produced during the First World War.

While resembling the Maxim, the Schwarzlose was unusual in that it employed a delayed blowback mechanism that utilized a single spring, as well as another that incorporated a device that oiled cartridge cases for easier extraction. The former feature allowed the chamber pressure to drop to a safe level, if the machine gun was operated correctly.

Use as an infantry weapon

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in a trench, 1916. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / bildarchivaustria / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The Schwarzlose MG was developed for use by infantrymen and thus was used heavily throughout the fighting that occurred during the First World War. It served a traditional, tripod-mounted role, with a crew of three typically charged with manning it. One served as the commander, while the others were the gunner and ammunition carrier. The third would also typically act as the loader.

While serving as an infantry weapon, the Schwarzlose could also be deployed with a more-compact “backpack mount,” although it was rarely used in such a way. In this configuration, it was fitted with a backwards folding bipod that was attached to the front of the water jacket, near the muzzle.

Modifying the Schwarzlose MG for aircraft was a challenge

Soldiers operating a Schwarzlose MG in an anti-aircraft capacity, 1915. (Photo Credit: NIMH / Dutch Ministry of Defence / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)

While the Schwarzlose MG was used by infantrymen in an anti-aircraft capacity, it was actually adapted for use by aircraft flown by the Austro-Hungarian k.u.k. Luftfahrtruppe. A lighter version was necessary for this, which was ring-mounted or fixed-wing.

Right away, it was evident the Schwarzlose wasn’t developed for use by aircraft, as synchronizing it proved to be an engineering nightmare, due to the weapon’s delayed blowback mechanism. To bypass this, the fighters were equipped with large tachometers and Kravics indicators, which warned pilots of malfunctions in the synchronization gear. Attached through electrical wiring, they knew something was wrong when the Kravics’ light went out.

Increasing the defense of military fortifications

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in the Tyrol Mountains. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Das Ende einer Armee / Fritz Weber / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Outside of its aforementioned roles, the Schwarzlose MG also saw use as a naval gun aboard sea vessels and a fortress weapon. When equipped for the latter, it could be deployed on a host of different fixed mountings.

While its use as a fortress weapon was limited during WWI, the Czechoslovakians used the Schwarzlose in this capacity during the interwar period. The country’s armed forces adapted the machine gun, tasked the Janeček Factory with production and renamed it the těžký kulomet vz. 7/24.

Issues with the Schwarzlose MG

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in the field, 1916. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While the Schwarzlose MG was effective as an infantry weapon, it did have issues, particularly when used in ways it hadn’t been designed for, such as its aforementioned role as an aircraft gun. Outside of this, its unlocked-breech design required a shorter barrel, which, while helping to alleviate pressure, limited the machine gun’s muzzle velocity and reach. It also created a significant muzzle flash, necessitating the use of a rather large flash suppressor.

Another issue involved the Schwarzlose’s reliance on the weight of its breech block and semi-folded toggle arm. The former would unfold at a severe mechanical disadvantage, thereby slowing down the opening of the former.

Use by other nations

Soldiers manning Schwarzlose MGs in an anti-aircraft capacity, 1916. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Outside of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Schwarzlose MG saw use by a number of nations, including Greece, the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, Imperial Russia and Sweden, to name a few. During the interwar period, the Polish Air Force equipped its aircraft with the machine guns, using them against the Soviets during the Polish-Soviet War, while Japan equipped the 6.5 mm Arisaka variant on its Fusō-class battleships and Kongō-class battlecruisers.

When World War II broke out, the Schwarzlose was the standard-issue machine gun for the Italian colonial forces stationed in North Africa, where it saw limited action as an anti-aircraft weapon. The German Army also used it during the final stages of the conflict, while the Swedish volunteer unit (SFK) equipped it during the Winter War.

Before it became obsolete, the Schwarzlose also saw use during the 1932-33 Colombia-Peru War, the Russian Civil War, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Austro-Slovene Conflict, the Balkan Wars, the Spanish Civil War and the Austrian Civil War.