Shortly after 11:00 AM on July 19, 1918, the Pennsylvania-class armored cruiser USS San Diego (ACR-6) – formerly known as the USS California – was rocked by an explosion on the ship’s port side, near the port engine room. Within 30 minutes, she was at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.
When no one took responsibility for the attack, historians were left to their own speculation – that is, until 100 years later, when an underwater archaeologist made an interesting discovery.
USS San Diego‘s (ACR-6) career was tactical and political
USS San Diego (ACR-6), 1916. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The USS California was launched on April 28, 1904 and commissioned just over three years later. She was assigned to the Pacific Fleet’s 2nd Division, conducting exercises and drills along the west coast. In March 1912, she joined the Asiatic Station, a squadron of US Navy vessels stationed in East Asia. California went on to protect US assets in Nicaragua, enforced the military’s presence off the coast of Mexico and kept the peace during times of political turmoil.
In 1914, the armored cruiser was renamed the USS San Diego. The following year, she was placed on reduced commission after a boiler explosion, which was just a taste of what was to come. San Diego returned to duty as the flagship for Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet until February 1917, when she was placed into reserve status until the United States joined the First World War that April.
One day after the US declared war against Germany, San Diego was placed on full commission as the flagship of Commander, Patrol Force, Pacific Fleet. On July 18, she was ordered to join the Atlantic Fleet, serving as an escort for convoys navigating dangerous passages to Europe, as the north Atlantic was littered with U-boats.
Exactly one year later, she came face-to-face with the true dangers of the ocean.
Sinking of the USS San Diego (ACR-6)
USS San Diego (ACR-6), 1907. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
On July 18, 1918, the USS San Diego left Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Maine, bound for New York. Captained by Harley H. Christy, she traveled along a zigzag course as all lookouts, fire control parties and gun watches were on full alert.
The next morning, a massive explosion ripped through the ship’s port side. As the crew struggled to stop San Diego from taking on water, they soon realized the bulkhead near the explosion site was warped, making it impossible to close the watertight door between the engine room and the No. 8 fireroom.
As the flooding continued, Capt. Christy ordered the ship to proceed full speed ahead, anticipating they were under attack by a German U-boat. Not only was San Diego unable to accelerate, she could barely move at all – both engines were disabled and her machinery compartments were filling with water.
San Diego began to list, and, within 10 minutes of the explosion, was sinking. Christy ordered his crew to lower the lifeboats and abandon ship, and, within 28 minutes, the cruiser was at the bottom of the Atlantic, making her the only major American warship lost during World War I. Of the over-1,000 crewmen onboard, six died in the tragic incident.
Survivors were left with no answers
Artifacts from USS San Diego (ACR-6) on display. (Photo Credit: Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Lindsay A. Preston / US Navy / Naval History and Heritage Command / Public Domain)
After the sinking, Capt. Christy remained convinced they’d been struck by a torpedo, but there was no evidence that a U-boat had been in the area at the time, and none of the lookouts saw the wake created when a torpedo is fired.
Others speculated it could have been a sea mine, but it’s unlikely one would explode at the stern, instead of the bow of the ship. An official inquiry concluded the sinking was caused by such an explosive, as six contact mines had been located in the vicinity, but the true reason wasn’t that simple.
In 2018, 100 years after the USS San Diego sank, USNI News announced that the cause of the explosion was still inconclusive. Luckily, the American Geophysical Union (AGU) was about ready to hold its annual conference, where a bombshell revelation a century in the making would be dropped.
What really happened to the USS San Diego (ACR-6)?
Alexis Catsambis, underwater archeologist with the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC), carefully opens a plastic container in which artifacts of shipwrecks are kept. (Photo Credit: Astrid Riecken / The Washington Post / Getty Images)
After two years of research using archival documents, 3D scans and high-tech models, a team of researchers from the Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) announced their findings. At the 2018 AGU conference, underwater archaeologist Alexis Catsmabis declared, “We believe that U-156 sunk San Diego.”
Catsmabis explained that the flooding patterns didn’t look like an explosion was set inside the vessel, and the hole ripped into the USS San Diego‘s hull “didn’t look like a torpedo strike,” either. It was concluded that the armored cruiser was struck by a U-boat mine placed by SM U-156.
“Torpedos of the time carried more explosives than mines – and would have shown more immediate damage,” shared marine scientist Arthur Trembanis. The explosion itself wasn’t that powerful, but San Diego was filled to the brim with coal, making her top-heavy enough to easily capsize as she took on water.
“With this project, we had an opportunity to set the story straight,” Catsmabis said in a press release, “and by doing so, honor [the memory of the six crewmen who died] and also validate the fact that the men onboard did everything right in the lead up to the attack as well as in the response.”
Today, the wreck of San Diego lies upside down off the coast of New York’s Fire Island, some 110 feet below the water’s surface. Since the highest parts are just 66 feet down, the wreck has become a popular scuba diving attraction. It’s also been nicknamed the “Lobster Hotel” for the large community of lobsters that call the armored cruiser home.
For centuries, militaries tried to harness the ability to command fire. There were various methods used, but the flammenwerfer models developed by the German Army prior to World War I were the beginning of modern flamethrowers as we know them today. Their use in the conflict struck fear into the Allied forces, who were showered in flames while in their trenches, and the weapon’s power was fully recognized as a result.
In 1901, Richard Fiedler patented the design for a machine that could weaponize fire. It’s from this that modern flamethrowers are attributed. Fielder’s design was so intriguing that it caught the attention of the German Army that same year. Officials began funding the project, hoping to adopt whatever means he came up with.
Fiedler was tasked with coming up with various models of flammenwerfers and presented a working prototype in 1905. After testing and trials, two designs were delivered and accepted into service: the grossflammenwerfer and the kleinflammenwerfer.
Also known as the Grof, the Grossflammenwerfer was the largest and heaviest of the German flamethrowers, and not intended to be carried by troops. Comprised of a stationary fuel and propellant tank with a loose hose, it would be placed in one position, as it wasn’t easily moved. Once set up, soldiers would use the hose to attack enemy trenches.
Early versions of the Grof could spray flames up to 40 yards for 40-50 seconds, while later models allowed for multiple hoses and tanks to be used. This early flammenwerfer had to be operated by a team of five men. Operators would aim the fire upward, to cause the flames to “rain” down on enemy trenches, instead of spraying across the top.
A disadvantage of the Grof was the risk of the tank exploding, due to enemy fire, and that the sheer amount of flammable liquid held within would cause a much larger – and possibly lethal – explosion.
Kleinflammenwerfer
Soldiers operating a kleinflammenwerfer during World War I. (Photo Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 104-0669 / Wikimedia Commons CC-BY-SA 3.0 de)
Also known as the Kleif, the kleinflammenwerfer was a more portable flamethrower operated by a four-man crew. Still not operable by a single person, it had two functioning parts: the fuel and propellant tank that was worn as a backpack and the hose that connected to it.
The first soldier was in charge of carrying the tank, accompanied by a second for assistance. The third was in charge of operating the hose and and directing the spray, while the fourth crewman was trained to assault enemy positions. The intention was to force them out, thus exposing the troops to the destruction and pain of the Kleif. There were multiple variations developed that saw the necessary crew dwindle to two, but it could never quite be reduced to a single soldier.
As it was smaller that the Grof, the Kleif was unable to achieve the same reach. The spray was limited to 20-30 yards, with a continuous spray of just 20-40 seconds. Regardless, the Kleif proved effective when it was first unleashed by the Germans at Verdun on February 26, 1915.
Wechselapparat
US soldiers testing a captured Wechselapparat. (Photo Credit: U.S. Signal Corps / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
A third flammenwerfer was developed well into the First World War: the Wechselapparat, also known as the Wex. It was introduced into service in 1917 and had a unique distinction over the Kleif, as its backpack-style tank was donut-shaped.
Like the Kleif, the Wex was operated by a four-man crew, although it seems probable that it could have technically been manned by a single person. As this was a possibility, it’s likely soldiers were trained on how to operate it individually, but, due to the ease of the team approach, this was almost never employed.
Bernhard Reddemann made flammenwerfers useable on the battlefield
Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images
Independent of Fiedler, Bernhard Reddemann developed his own flamethrower. He was inspired by the use of kerosene by the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese War, and used his knowledge as a chief firefighter using pumping equipment to extinguish fires.
When the First World War broke out, Reddemann served as part of a Pioniere unit made up of specialized troops. By the second year of the conflict, he was the head of a flammenwerfer battalion, and Fiedler’s designs were made viable in war thanks to him.
The flammenwerfer units employed both the Grof and Kleif to initiate combined attacks, which were some of the most successful uses of the weapons during the conflict. Reddemann kept records of his men, recording only 890 deaths of the thousands who served. He also noted that they were successful in more than 80 percent of attacks.
The flammenwerfers of WWI continued to be improved upon, and a single-soldier version was ready to be equipped by the time the German Army became embroiled in the Second World War.
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive toward the end of World War I is widely considered to be the campaign that truly stopped any and all fighting along the Western Front. It saw the US and French militaries use their combined strength to push the Germans several miles over the course of a month and a half, albeit at the expense of hundreds of thousands of lives.
High US casualties during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
US troops preparing for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, September 1918. (Photo Credit: The Print Collector / Getty Images)
The Meuse-Argonne Offensive was the final Allied engagement along the Western Front during the First World War, carried out over 47 days by American and French troops. It was both the largest in the history of the US military, with 1.2 million Americans participating, and the deadliest to involve the US Army. The service suffered over 122,000 casualties, of which more than 26,000 were killed in action (KIA).
The reason American casualties were so high was that 70 percent of troops were young (between 18-23) and inexperienced. This, paired with poorly-planned tactics and the spread of the Spanish Flu, greatly impacted the effectiveness of the US forces. That being said, with over one million soldiers, they greatly outnumbered the Germans, which ultimately proved beneficial to the outcome of the war.
Initially, the American forces consisted of 15 First US Army divisions, while the French had 31. Altogether, they were equipped with 2,780 artillery pieces, 840 aircraft and 380 tanks. At this point in the conflict, the Germans were fighting with only 50 percent of their initial strength, but they were still able to put up enough of a resistance to force the Americans and French to call in reinforcements.
Aim of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
German fortified outpost during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, 1918. (Photo Credit: SeM / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
At the time, the Germans had the high ground along the Western Front. The Meuse-Argonne Offensive devised a plan to take that away by clearing the forest, after which the Allies would continue their advance and capture Sedan.
The city was home to a railway hub that was essential to the Germans, as it issued around 250 cargo trains a day to those forces stationed throughout France and Belgium. Each was filled with supplies and weapons. Therefore, capturing Sedan was integral to the Allies gaining control of the Western Front.
Commencing the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
US troops traveling to the battle line during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, September 1918. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
The first phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive began with an American attack at approximately 5:30 AM on September 26, 1918, led by Gen. John J. Pershing. The three-hour-long frontal bombardment was intended to push against the German line.
While the V and III Corps were able to achieve most of what they’d intended with the assault, the 28th Infantry Division was met with heavy resistance from the Germans. As well, the 91st had to evacuate Épinonville, while the 79th and 37th failed to secure Montfaucon and Montfaucon-d’Argonne.
The following day was much less successful. However, the 79th Division did manage to capture Montfaucon. On top of this, the 35th captured not only the village of Baulny, but Charpentry and Hill 218, as well.
German forces launch a counterattack
German dugout in the Forest of Argonne, 1917-18. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / U.S. National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Germans deployed reinforcements and launched a counterattack against the 35th Division on September 29, 1918. The US division had undergone leadership changes prior to the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, so it’s likely that poor commanders impacted their success.
Even with the counterattack, the 35th Division was still able to advance 15 km.
The Americans had overwhelming numbers compared to the Germans, which, despite their inexperience, put a lot of pressure on the enemy and forced them to retreat. In the first month, the Allies had successfully captured 9,000 prisoners of war (POWs). However, by that October, both sides were forced to call in reinforcements as they continued to wage the bloodiest battle seen on the Western Front.
Launching phase two of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
US soldiers pass through the ruins of Varennes-en-Argonne during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, 1918. (Photo Credit: The Print Collector / Getty Images)
Phases two and three of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive moved extremely fast.
The second began on October 4, 1918, when the infantry divisions involved in the first assault were replaced by the 32nd, 3rd and 1st. Advancing two and a half kilometers against the German 37th and 5th Divisions, as well as the 52nd Infantry Division, the 1st created a gap in the enemy line.
Between October 14-17, the Americans performed several frontal assaults that broke the Germans’ main defenses, although this resulted in high casualties. The 42nd Infantry Division took over Côte de Châtillon, considered the turning point for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Led by Brig. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, the division took advantage of a gap created in the German line.
The force with which the Americans pushed against the enemy was impressive, and, by November, they were closing in on Sedan.
Successfully capturing Sedan
Members of the 18th Infantry, 1st Division scaling the side of Hill 240 during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, October 1918. (Photo Credit: PhotoQuest / Getty Images)
Beginning the third phase on November 1, 1918, the Americans reached the Meuse, and, by November 4, had the prized railway hub surrounded. Just a few days later, on November 10, they successfully took Sedan and cut off any German access.
By the end of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, the Americans had cleared the area and pushed the Germans back over 10 miles. By securing Sedan, the engagement had taken away control from the enemy and effectively brought an end to fighting along the Western Front.
With the loss of their railway system, the soldiers within the Imperial German Army began to mutiny, leading all sides to agree to a ceasefire and ultimately resulting in the signing of the Armistice on November 11.
Lost Battalion of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
Lost Battalion of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
American advances during the second phase of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive were too speedy for some, resulting in a mistake that cost the lives of hundreds of soldiers.
A group of 554 men from B Company, 308th Infantry Regiment, 77th Infantry Division advanced too far and became surrounded by the Germans, making them forever known as the “Lost Battalion.” Considered the first over the top, they drew the attention of the enemy and created a distraction that ultimately allowed the Allies to break through and force the Germans to retreat.
The unit was largely made up of new recruits, and their advancement past the Allied line was a mistake. They believed they were supported by the French along their left flank, when, in reality, their reinforcements were delayed. This allowed the Germans to encircle and close them in with barbed wire.
Encircled by the Germans and targeted by friendly fire
The Lost Battalion, 1919. (Photo Credit: MacManus Corporation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
While encircled, the Lost Battalion suffered greatly due to a lack of food and medical supplies. They were also cut off from radio communications, so their last hope was to call for help using carrier pigeons. However, the Germans shot down each and every one.
At the same time the battalion was suffering artillery from the Germans, they were also targeted by unknowing American fire. Their last pigeon, Cher Ami, miraculously flew past the Germans, despite sustaining several injuries, and delivered a note to the US forces, which read, “We are along the road parallel to 276.4. Our own artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heaven’s sake, stop it.”
One soldier with the Lost Battalion, Samuel Marcus, wrote about his experience behind enemy lines. He recounted in one diary entry, “We cut our way through wire entanglements, fought machine gun nests, laid in holes, hastily dug, wet, cold, hungry, pushed ahead without any relief, being encircled by the Germans and attacked and starved for 6 days when at last we were rescued, a sorry lot of men.”
He later wrote in his diary, “Nothing can ever seem hard to me after what I have gone through.”
Unfortunately, the Lost Battalion is a misnomer, as they were never “lost” – they were abandoned by their comrades. The troops were stuck behind enemy lines for a week, after which they were rescued – and attacked by – the 28th and 82nd Infantry Divisions. Of the 554 who were trapped, only 194 were saved.
One of the most talked about films of 2022 was All Quiet on the Western Front. The adaptation of Erich Maria Remarque’s classic anti-war novel was praised for not only tackling a well-known work of literature, but for its brutal and realistic portrayal of trench warfare during the First World War. The acting, visual effects and storylines all came together to earn the release some of the entertainment industry’s most coveted accolades.
Erich Maria Remarque drew upon his own wartime experiences
Erich Maria Remarque, 1940. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The author of All Quiet on the Western Front, Erich Maria Remarque, was a soldier in the Imperial German Army during the First World War. Conscripted at the age of 18, he served on the Western Front with 2nd Company, Reserves, Field Depot, 2nd Guards Reserve Division, seeing action in the trenches between Houthulst and Torhout.
In July 1917, Remarque was wounded by shrapnel in the neck, left leg and right arm, and, after being evacuated from the front, was repatriated to an army hospital in Germany. While he was recalled to service in October 1918, the armistice was signed just a month later.
Over 10 years after the conflict, Remarque published All Quiet on the Western Front. Drawing upon his own experiences, he depicted the brutality and mental strain of serving in the trenches, as well as the detachment servicemen felt upon returning home. The novel struck a chord with readers and went on to sell 2.5 million copies within its first 18 months.
Viewed by many to be anti-war, All Quiet on the Western Front was banned in numerous European countries, the most notable being Germany during its re-militarization. Remarque was accused of exaggerating the horrors of war, and the book was among the first to be publicly burned by the country’s political regime
All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)
All Quiet on the Western Front, 1930. (Photo Credit: zs93 / MovieStillsDB)
In 1930, director Lewis Milestone premiered the first adaptation of All Quiet on the Western Front. Featuring a largely American cast, including Lew Ayres, Richard Alexander and John Wray, it brought the fighting Paul Bäumer experiences to the big screen – albeit with Vintage Hollywood-era effects and film sets.
The production was, for the most part, faithful to its source material (aside from Paul’s death, which occurs while he’s reaching for a butterfly), and even saw the involvement of German veterans as technical advisors. It received critical acclaim upon, and even went on to win the first ever Academy Awards for Best Director and Outstanding Production.
Similar to the book, the film adaptation of All Quiet on the Western Front was boycotted by the German regime. Officials went so far as to sabotage screenings by setting off stink bombs, letting mice loose in theaters and physically assaulting members of the audience. This eventually led to it being banned in the country toward the end of 1930. It wasn’t re-released until 1952.
All Quiet on the Western Front (2022)
All Quiet on the Western Front, 2022. (Photo Credit: Sinister75 / MovieStillsDB)
The third film adaptation of All Quiet of the Western Front (there was a television movie released in 1979) is arguably the most successful. The German-language movie debuted on Netflix in October 2022, and used 21st-century special effects to make the realities of World War I-era trench warfare even more jarring for audiences.
Production began in February 2020, and, while relatively true to Remarque’s book, does differ slightly at points. Newcomer Felix Kammerer stars as Paul Bäumer, while Albrecht Schuch took on the supporting role of Stanislaus “Kat” Katczinsky. Many were quick to point out that, story-wise, the 1930 version is superior. That being said, no one could question the film’s impact.
While the recipient of a wide array of awards (far too many to list), the Netflix adaptation of All Quiet on the Western Front made waves at the Oscars, scoring four wins, including Best International Feature Film, and five more nominations. Among them was the most coveted award of the night: Best Picture.
Showcasing the brutality of World War I-era trench warfare
German Spring Offensive, 1918. (Photo Credit: NCJ / Topix / NCJ Archive / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)
The whole point of All Quiet on the Western Front is to show the hardships of serving in the trenches on the Western Front. While similar films may, in some way, glorify war, the book and its three film adaptations do the opposite. Thanks to advancements in technology, the 2022 version does this the best.
Aside from the fact trenches were narrow, muddy and water-logged, they were also incredibly dangerous for those serving in them. They provided little protection against overhead attacks, despite being designed for that. While they somewhat prevented widespread deaths from the use of chemical weapons, if a soldier couldn’t get their gas mask on in time, they still suffered.
Trenches were also breeding grounds for disease and illness, thanks to rats, dirty standing water and, sometimes, untreated injuries. As the conflict went on and soldiers became weaker and demoralized, militaries began to favor night attacks, with the aim of catching a sleeping enemy force off-guard.
All Quiet on the Western Front shows these dangers, as well as how these conditions hurt those serving in the trenches. When the German lines suffered artillery fire from the Allies, viewers see just how narrowly a number of soldiers avoided death by ducking at just the right time. As well, when hiding in bunkers, the audience sees just how easily everything could collapse, given the less-than-effective materials used to construct them.
Paul loses many of his comrades to enemy action in the trenches. As the Allied forces make their push forward, the film shows the German line moving back and the carnage that occurs as a result – and that’s not even mentioning No Man’s Land and the shell-pocked landscape many had to run through.
Aside from the physical death and destruction, All Quiet on the Western Front also shows the mental toll of such fighting. Paul’s spice for life and naïvety all but disappear as the film progresses. Gone is the innocence of a boy who just became a man, replaced by the horrors of war.
Not only does he lose the friends with whom he enlisted, but those he befriended in the trenches, sometimes to enemy action and, other times, to their own hand, as they’re unable to live with what they’ve seen or the injuries they’ve suffered. Paul’s dead eyes by the time he himself dies show just how much the conflict changed him and serve as a symbol of just how much soldiers on both sides suffered.
Differences between the book and the Netflix adaptation
All Quiet on the Western Front, 2022. (Photo Credit: michaella92 / MovieStillsDB)
While the primary story and message are the same between the book version of All Quiet on the Western Front and the Netflix adaptation, there are a handful of differences to note. One is the armistice storyline, which doesn’t feature in the former. In the movie, it offers a juxtaposition between the fighting occurring in the trenches and the discussions being held between Europe’s top military officials.
A second difference omits a part of the story that best shows the psychological effects of the war. In Remarque’s book, Paul is granted leave, but, upon returning home, finds himself alienated from his loved ones. They don’t know what he’s been through and seen on the frontlines, so they can’t relate to him, leaving him feeling isolated. This part is completely left out in the film.
Throughout All Quiet on the Western Front, Stanislaus “Kat” Katczinsky is Paul’s truest friend. Essentially taking the 18-year-old under his wing, Kat provides companionship and support to Paul, who naïvely didn’t realize just how brutal the war would be. It can even be argued that the older man turns into a sort of father/big brother figure.
In the book, Kat is injured by shrapnel and, while being carried to the medics by Paul, is struck in the head by additional pieces. He dies instantly. In the film, it’s not enemy action that leads to the character’s death. Rather, it’s the child of the farmer from whom Paul and him have been stealing eggs. While being carried back, Kat perishes, likely due to blood los, but Paul doesn’t realize this until he’s back at base and told by a medic.
A final notable difference comes in the way Paul dies. Remarque has him die on what is otherwise a rather peaceful day. The book then moves to third person, signaling the protagonist no longer lives. The movie, however, throws the armistice plot line into the mix.
Despite the agreement being signed by both sides, German Gen. Friedrichs sends the men out for one more fight, so they can return to Germany as heroes, rather than losers. It’s during the fighting that Paul perishes, with his body discovered by a young recruit.
Many men went up against German machine guns during the First World War and didn’t live to tell the tale. Even fewer did so directly and survived. Alvin York, on the other hand, successfully captured over 30 guns and more than 100 soldiers. As one of the conflict’s most decorated US Army soldiers, it’s no wonder Hollywood made an epic movie about Sgt York’s service.
Alvin York’s early life
Sgt Alvin York, 1919. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Alvin Cullum York was born in Fentress County, Tennessee on December 13, 1887. He came from humble beginnings, living in a two-room log cabin with his parents and 10 siblings. They subsisted through farming, hunting and fishing while their father worked as a blacksmith to earn money.
The elder York died in 1911, leaving Alvin to raise his younger siblings alongside his mother. Taking on the role of breadwinner, he went to Harriman, Tennessee to work on the railway and in logging.
While he was determined to keep his family afloat and was by all accounts good at his work, York tended to drink excessively and get into fights. This behavior led to many arrests. However, on Sundays, he’d turn up to his mother’s pacifist Protestant church, which eventually led him to turn his back on violence.
Drafted into service during the First World War
Sgt Alvin York, 1918. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
This carried across into the First World War. When he was 29, the Selective Service Act was implemented, and York was required to register for the draft. He did so on June 5, 1917, claiming exemption by writing, “Don’t Want To Fight.” Should this have been approved, he would have been given conscientious objector status, but it was denied.
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Although he appealed, he was drafted into the Army in November 1917 while it was still under consideration. Interestingly, York denied this position later in life and in his wartime diary, despite paperwork showing he’d filed an appeal. This change of heart can likely be attributed to his lengthy conversations with Capt. Edward Danforth Jr. and Maj. Gonzalo Buxton Jr., who cited Bible passages that convinced him it wasn’t immoral to fight.
After a 10-day leave home, York returned to Company G, 328th Infantry, 82nd Division, assured that God meant for him to fight.
The pacifist served during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, where he was promoted to corporal. However, it was during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive that York led his movie-worthy attack.
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On October 8, 1918, York’s battalion was charged with taking the German position near Hill 223, just north of Chatel-Chéhéry, France. This was no easy task, due to the heavy machine gun fire. As he later recalled, “Our boys just went down like the long grass before the mowing machine at home.”
York and 17 other men snuck behind German lines, only for nine soldiers and one officer to be taken out after capturing a small group of prisoners. As the shooting continued, York led the remaining contingent in returning fire with the Germans’ own machine guns. He supposedly used his hunting skills to creep up and try to take one of the weapons alone. While holding the position, a German officer led a small group to his location, but York quickly dispatched them with his pistol.
An instant hero
Sgt Alvin York with his mother after World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
It wasn’t until Imperial German Army First Lt. Paul Jürgen Vollmer tried unsuccessfully to take him out that York received an incredible offer. Vollmer had sustained heavy losses and offered to surrender his battalion of 90 men to York, who gladly accepted. While marching back to the American lines, he accepted more surrenders.
Upon his return, Brig. Gen. Julia Lindsey quipped, “Well York, I hear you have captured the whole German Army.” He replied, “No sir. I only got 132.”
York was quickly promoted to sergeant and awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. This was upgraded a few months later to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him by Gen. John Pershing. He was also awarded the Croix de Guerre, the Médaille Militaire and Legion of Honor from the French; the Croce al Merito di Guerra from the Italians; and the Montenegro War Medal.
By the war’s end, York had received almost 50 different decorations for his actions.
Returning home to Tennessee
Sgt Alvin York with his mother and younger sister, 1919. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Shockingly, it wasn’t until April 26, 1919 that York became an American celebrity, following the publication of an article in the Saturday Evening Post. Only a week after returning home to Tennessee, he married Gracie Williams, spurring on even more celebrations.
York never wanted to profit from his fame, refusing to be paid for many of his appearances. Instead, he used it to push for the betterment of his home state, including improving roads and education. He was a superintendent with the Civilian Conservation Corps and Cumberland Mountain State Park.
When the Second World War began, he pushed forcefully for the US to enter the conflict. He attempted to re-enlist in the Army, but was denied, due to his age and health. Instead, he was made a major with the Army Signal Corps and spent most of the conflict touring different training camps and helping raise money via bond drives.
Sgt Alvin York’s heroics were turned into a movie
Sergeant York, 1941. (Photo Credit: arrakis / MovieStillsDB)
After his return from the First World War, journalists were eager to get their hands on York’s life story. He was happy to comply, telling it to two men in the 1920s, one of whom used it to write a biography released in 1922. Along with a fellow veteran, York turned his writing into Sergeant York: His Own Life Story and War Diary.
Despite the persistent buzz surrounding his story, he refused to turn this work into a film – that is, until 1940.
Sgt York finally agreed to have his life made into a movie, only because he wanted to fund an interdenominational Bible school. Starring Gary Cooper as the famed soldier and with Howard Hawks as director, Sergeant Yorkwas released in 1941.
The film followed his life and heroics during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Although it was based on York’s diary, much of the content was fictitious. Despite this, Sergeant York was incredibly popular with the public.
Alvin York’s legacy
Graves of Sgt Alvin York and his wife at Wolf River Cemetery, in Tennessee. (Photo Credit: Brian Stansberry / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)
Sergeant York was the highest-grossing movie of 1941 and was nominated for 11 Oscars, winning two. In 2008, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. York earned $150,000 in royalties in the first two years alone, leaving him with enough money to build part of his proposed school.
Aside from this work, he raised a family of 10 children with his wife, before dying of a cerebral hemorrhage on September 2, 1964. Through his movie and in other ways, Sgt York left behind a lasting legacy. Several monuments were erected in his honor, and streets, schools and hospitals were given his name. In 2000, the US Postal Service issued a Distinguished Soldier stamp that featured York, and he has even been referenced in many songs.
It’s safe to say Sgt York, a man who dedicated himself to his community, state and country, is well remembered.
World War I was a time of immense upheaval and change. One group that played a surprisingly important role during this time was the British Girl Guides. When the conflict began, the organization quickly adapted, with many Guides volunteering their time and skills to support the war effort. This included fundraising, collecting donations, providing nursing care and even serving with Britain’s counterintelligence agency. While the Girl Guides weren’t MI5’s first choice, they were very effective.
Gossiping Boy Scouts
Boy Scouts boxing each other, 1917. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)
At the beginning of the First World War, MI5 decided to employ the Boy Scouts. They were far from spies, but were given similar duties, such as delivering counter-espionage messages and intelligence gathering.
This might seem like a dream come true for a group of boys unable to enlist and fight, but it didn’t take long for them to get fired. Problems arose with their work, including bringing in unreliable reports and telling people about their top-secret job, which they weren’t supposed to bring up – ever.
Ultimately, MI5 made the decision to fire the Boy Scouts in September 1915. Instead, the agency hired the Girl Guides, who they believed would prove to be a much better option. As it turned out, they were right.
The Girl Guides were a much better replacement
Girl Scouts, the American version of the Girl Guides, collecting peach pits during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouts, agreed with the decision. He said, “[Girls] can be trusted, better than boys, not to talk. If the character of the girl is developed, she will discipline herself not to ‘blab’ and will ‘play the game’ not for herself and her own glorification – but in the interests of her side.”
As former Director-General of MI5 Jonathan Evans explained, the Boy Scouts “proved feckless and noisy and the Girl Guides were a more reliable alternative.”
Guides between the ages of 14 and 16 who were “of good standing, quick, cheerful and willing” were hired by MI5. Their parents and troop leader had to agree. Roughly 90 worked in this capacity. Those who were successful were brought to one of the three houses used by MI5 during the war, to serve a three-month probation period.
Treaty of Versailles
Girl Guides with a soldier who suffered a spinal injury during the First World War, 1926. (Photo Credit: Fox Photos / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
The Girl Guides’ primary job with MI5 was as messengers. As they were carrying highly-classified documents, they had to swear not to read them when they first started their employment. Aside from physical messages, they were asked to deliver some from memory. The Guides were compensated with payments of 10 shillings a week, and they were also given lunch breaks.
They proved to be successful employees, which is part of the reason why their work didn’t cease when the conflict reached its conclusion. A select few accompanied the British delegation to France for the Paris Peace Conference. They passed messages between different individuals and ran errands.
Although it’s unclear if they were the same girls who worked as messengers, 16 senior Guiders were invited to watch the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. It wasn’t until the agreement was official that they were sent home, with very few ever talking about their experiences with MI5.
After a century of battling the elements, the Menin Gate in Belgium is about to get some well-earned rest and recuperation. The monument dedicated to the fallen of the engagements that occurred around the Belgian city in World War I is to be shrouded in scaffolding and weather-proof wrapping for a two-year restoration project.
“Last Post” Ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
The restoration work has just started in the city, where a daily “Last Post” ceremony is held each evening, rain or shine. Traffic is halted at 8:00 PM nightly and the ceremony occurs under the middle of the arch, with the bugle calls reverberating off the stone walls and roof.
Now, it’s been moved in front of the East entrance.
Overseeing the project on behalf of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is Site Manager Sarah Camerlynck. She’s spent the last two years inspecting as much of the structure as possible, compiling reports for architects and construction teams selected by the Commission.
Once the monument has been totally clothed in scaffolding, Camerlynck will have an extra chance to check it over, almost inch by inch!
Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
Some parts of the memorial have weathered well, but where damage has occurred it will need to be restored or replaced. Built of limestone and brick, some materials and mortars will need to be replaced to improve general waterproofing. The roof is planned to be mostly rebuilt, becoming environmental green. This is thought to improve its life by two or three times!
One major factor that had to be addressed is that the Menin Gate is a key entryway into Ypres, so most of the work will carry on with the road still very much in use – although only one way.
The prized precious name panels made from Portland stone will certainly be one area that will be inspected in fine detail. Here, 54,586 names of the fallen, without any known grave, are inscribed. With so many names, weathering may have reduced their legibility, which is where letter-cutting mason’s will attempt to re-cut them in situ.
If necessary, whole panels could be re-cut. Although, today, that work can be completed using CAD milling machines that carve the stone using computer control. Nearby, at Arras, is a specialist facility run by the CWGC, where such machines and skills are available, if they’re required.
Wreaths laid during the “Last Post” Ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
The museum and visitors center in Arras is where you can see some of the work carried out by the CWGC, be they carpenters, metal workers or stone masons, plus the gardeners and horticultural staff who tend some of the 200 cemeteries around this immediate area of Flanders. Those looking to visit the area can prepare for their trip via Flanders’ tourism website.
All around the world, the CWGC looks after 23,000 cemeteries and war memorials. There’s such a concentration of graves in this specific region because the two World Wars fought across almost the same ground in Flanders. In WWI, there were three battles of Arras, with the last major engagement being Passchendaele.
Canadian Officer Cadets at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
Menin Gate was chosen because of the thousands of soldiers who would have passed through on their way to the battlefields in this sector called the Ypres Salient. It commemorates the Australian, Canadian, Indian, South African and British troops who died in the Salient.
British casualties prior to August 16, 1917 are listed there. During that period, some 450,000 soldiers were killed, with the battle lines moving forward and back only four miles during the whole conflict. In the latter stages, it was a muddy hell, even stopping tanks! Although, today, there are few signs of that… Just trimmed neat fields of corn and crops, with the trees and hedges fully returned.
Sarah Camerlynck, site manger for the Commonwealth War Grave Commission’s (CWGC) restoration of the Menin Gate. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
Later deaths from the UK and New Zealand from after that date are named on the huge memorial at Tyne Cot. Coincidentally, it was the site that marked the furthest point reached by the Commonwealth forces in Belgium until nearly the end of the war. Kiwi casualties after August 16, 1917 are commemorated on memorials at Buttes New British Cemetery and Messines Ridge British Cemetery, all very close to Ypres.
Designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield, the memorial was unveiled by Lord Plumer on July 24, 1927.
Former bunkers still litter the landscape, and two remaining German bunkers have been included within the massive British cemetery at Tyne Cot. There are 11,961 Commonwealth servicemen from the First World War buried or commemorated in Tyne Cot, and the memorial wall bears the names of nearly 35,000 British and Kiwi soldiers, again with no known grave.
Sadly, many more gravestones carry the inscription “A Soldier of The Great War,” rather than their actual name, which is why memorials like the Menin Gate are so important.
German bunkers amid gravestones at Tyne Cot Cemetery, in Flanders. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)
Some countries, like the United States, decided after the war to repatriate their fallen – and many were returned. In the end, 43,909 bodies were brought back to America. One funeral ship that docked in Hoboken, New Jersey on May 23, 1921 was met by President Warren G. Harding as he paid tribute to the 5,000 bodies that arrived onboard the USAT Wheaton.
A point worth noting is that nearly 800,000 soldiers from the UK and US died during WWI. If you watched the coronation of King Charles III on television, there were just 4,000 service personnel in that parade, meaning that 200 times that amount died during the conflict. That’s an average total of 480 deaths per day.
In the aftermath of the First World War, a remarkable event unfolded in Britain, causing a stir among military and civilian circles: the unexpected arrival of the German U-boat SM U-118. The fact this once-mighty war machine was stranded on British soil (or, to be more precise, sand) was both spectacular and puzzling.
U-118 participated in the First Battle of the Atlantic, prowling the ocean as part of Germany’s formidable U-boat fleet. She sunk two British vessels – the steamer Wellington and tanker Arca – over the course of her short career, before being surrendered in Harwich by the Imperial German Navy on February 23, 1919.
The Allies intended to tow U-118 to Brest. On April 15, 1919, while journeying to the French port city, a storm struck and the U-boat broke from her towing lines. This is how she washed ashore on a beach in Hastings, Sussex. U-118 beached around 12:45 AM, right in front of the famous Queens Hotel. While efforts were made to dislodge the vessel, all were unsuccessful.
The spectacle drew massive attention, and crowds flocked to view the massive U-boat. Local authorities even began taking people on deck tours, so long as they paid a small fee. Everything they earned was used to welcome British servicemen home from the war.
These tours were quickly stopped when two of the Coast Guardsmen running them became very ill; both were dead by February 1920 from abscesses in their brains and lungs, caused by toxic chlorine gas leaking from the U-boat’s batteries.
U-118 was completed dismantled by 1921. While there are no visible remnants left on the beach in Hastings, it’s always possible that some fragments of the German vessel remain hidden beneath the sand.
Amid the bustling streets of Manhattan’s Union Square in World War I, an extraordinary sight met passersby. The USS Recruit (1917), a wooden landship constructed for the US Navy, stood proudly in the heart of the area. Although it may not have sailed the high seas or braved enemy fire, this unconventional vessel served as a training tool for new recruits and increased the number of men who enlisted as part of the war effort. It only remained in place for three years, but effectively served its purpose.
Conception of the USS Recruit (1917)
USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: Nicola-688319 / National Museum of the U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
When the United States entered the First World War, the Navy needed to recruit more men. In New York City, Mayor John P. Mitchel pledged to recruit 2,000 new sailors for the war effort, but struggled to surpass 900 volunteers.
“The recruitment numbers in 1916 had been a major embarrassment to the New York City mayor at the time, John Mitchel,” Scot Christenson, the director of communications at the United States Naval Institute, tells The New York Times. “So he realized that if he could not bring people from the middle of New York to a ship, he could bring a ship to the middle of New York.”
Needing to spark interest in potential candidates, Mitchel devised a plan to build a wooden landship in the near-perfect likeness of active-duty battleships. Following the direction of the Mayor’s Committee of National Defense, the USS Recruit was built and “launched” on May 30, 1917, in the heart of Manhattan’s Union Square.
Sailors were stationed aboard the USS Recruit (1917)
Sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
As an article published in The New York Times on March 27, 1917 explains, “Measuring 200 feet from stem to stern and forty feet beam, the Recruit has been built to offer much-needed quarters for both the Navy and Marine recruiting forces.” A conning tower, two high cage masts and a fake smokestack gave the wooden battleship her realistic appearance. The vessel’s interior featured a wireless station, officer’s quarters, cabins and medical examination rooms.
One of the most integral components of the USS Recruit was that she was to operate as a fully-functioning naval ship – just on land, instead of in water. As she was a properly commissioned ship, she was put under the command of Acting Capt. C.F. Pierce, with a complement of 39 crewmen.
Everyone followed a normal routine. Sailors began their day at 6:00 AM, scrubbing the deck, doing laundry and performing other tasks expected of them. They also stood guard over Recruit, giving them a chance to interact with civilians. Her searchlights were turned on in the evening, making Manhattan feel like a great body of water.
‘Arming’ the land-based battleship
Grace Carley Harriman with Junior Naval and Marine Scouts aboard the USS Recruit (1917), 1917. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
In keeping with accuracy, the USS Recruit was “armed” with weaponry that would’ve been equipped by other ships, just all of it was made from wood. She had three twin turrets containing six imitation 14-inch guns as her main battery and 10 five-inch guns in casemates, which served as anti-torpedo boat weapons. Two one-pound saluting gun replicas were also crafted, rounding out Recruit‘s overall “armament.”
At one point during the First World War, the Women’s Reserve Camouflage Corps painted Recruit, to give the vessel a more realistic appearance.
As Christenson explains, “For part of its existence, it was painted in vivid colors of pink, green, blue, black and white, in geometric patterns – squares and rectangles. That color scheme and pattern are called dazzle camouflage, and it was commonly used back then to help disguise the size, speed and distance of a ship, which is information a submarine would need to launch a successful torpedo attack against it.”
USS Recruit (1917) hosted social events
USS Recruit (1917) painted with dazzle camouflage. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Beyond her regular operation as a naval ship, the USS Recruit also allowed public tours. The public could walk around the vessel and get an idea of the kinds of activities performed by sailors, and they could also ask about the Navy itself. Allowing everyday citizens to immerse themselves in life aboard a battleship certainly helped raise interest in joining the war effort.
Recruit also served as a space for notable events in New York City. Liberty Bond drives were held aboard the vessel to raise funds for the war effort, and entertainment-oriented outings were held, as well, including vaudeville performances, dances and boxing matches. The ship even served as a set for the 1917 film, Over There.
Additionally, a christening was held aboard Recruit, as were patriotic speeches from organizations like the Red Cross Women’s Motor Corps.
Successfully recruiting new sailors
US Navy sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Over the course of her time in Union Square, the USS Recruit did exactly what she was intended to; New York City’s original recruitment total of 900 multiplied drastically, thanks to the wooden battleship.
After several years of showcasing life in the Navy, the metropolitan area had managed to recruit an impressive 25,000 sailors for the service, enough to man 28 Nevada-class battleships.
USS Recruit (1917) ‘sets sail’
Dismantling of the USS Recruit (1917), 1919. (Photo Credit: Internet Archive Book Images / Library of Congress / Sloan Foundation / Wikimedia Commons / No Known Restrictions)
When the First World War came to an end, the USS Recruit stayed put for another two years. However, as Christenson explains, “By 1920, the United States had the largest Navy in the world in terms of sailors, and there was less of a need for them with the end of World War I.” As such, the ship’s flag was lowered on March 16, 1920, and she was decommissioned and dismantled.
At first, the city planned to rebuild Recruit in Coney Island‘s Luna Park for continued use as a recruiting depot for the Navy, but when the time came, this never happened. “The plan was to move the Recruit to Coney Island. But the cost of moving the ship ended up being greater than the value, so the ship was dismantled and the materials were likely repurposed,” Christenson says.
Unable to justify the high costs, Recruit was never reassembled. While the exact fate of her materials is unknown, it’s most likely they were dispersed and used in other local projects.
The HMS Centurion (1911) was the second of four King George V-class dreadnought battleships. She served with the Royal Navy between 1913-44, seeing action throughout the First World War, including the Battle of Jutland. During World War II, the vessel was purposefully sunk on June 9, 1944, acting as a blockship in support of the invasion of Normandy.
Design and construction of the HMS Centurion (1911)
HMS Centurion (1911), 1914. (Photo Credit: Symonds & Co / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The HMS Centurion was laid down on January 16, 1911 and commissioned into the Royal Navy on May 22, 1913. Similar to the other dreadnoughts that made up the King George V-class, she had a displacement of 25,420 long tons, a length of over 597 feet, a beam of 89 feet and a draught of nearly 29 feet.
Two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving two shafts, powered Centurion. These allowed the dreadnought to hit speeds of up to 21 knots, with a range of 6,310 nautical miles at 10 knots.
Centurion was armed with 10 breech-loading (BL) 13.5-inch Mark V guns in five twin-gun turrets. She also had 16 BL four-inch Mark VII guns as her secondary armament, as well as three 21-inch torpedo tubes, one on either side of the bow and one at the stern.
Service during World War I
Unexploded shell from the German raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, 1914. (Photo Credit: Museum of Hartepool / Wikimedia Commons / No Restrictions)
Between July 17-20, 1914, the HMS Centurion took part in test a mobilization and was ordered to Scapa Flow with the Home Fleet, in preparation for a possible attack by the Imperial German Navy. With the outbreak of the First World War that summer, the fleet transitioned into the Grand Fleet, and Centurion joined the Second Battle Squadron.
The dreadnought spent most of the conflict in and around British waters. During the German raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, Centurion was present in the British defenses, alongside her sister ships, the HMS King George V (1911) and Ajax (1912). None of them engaged the enemy.
Centurion missed out on the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, but got a piece of the action at the Battle of Jutland the following year.
Battle of Jutland
Loss of the HMS Queen Mary during the Battle of Jutland, 1916. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Battle of Jutland, also known as the Battle of Skagerrak, was a significant naval engagement fought between May 31-June 1, 1916, near the coast of Denmark’s Jutland Peninsula. It involved the Royal Navy’s Grand Fleet, commanded by Adm. Sir John Jellicoe, and the Imperial German Navy’s High Seas Fleet, under the leadership of Vice Adm. Reinhard Scheer.
The clash between the two was a pivotal moment in the war, as it represented an attempt by the German Navy to break the British naval blockade and gain control of the North Sea. The objective was to lure and engage portions of the Grand Fleet, in the hope of inflicting damage and gaining a strategic advantage. The British, having intercepted German radio communications, were aware of the plans and set out to intercept the High Seas Fleet.
On the afternoon of May 31, the two naval forces made contact near the coast of Denmark. The battle commenced with long-range gun exchanges between the capital ships of both fleets, with the engagement overall being characterized by its massive scale and complexity. It involved 250 ships, and both sides suffered heavy losses, with multiple vessels sunk or severely damaged.
Centurion only played a minor role in the battle. On May 31, under the command of Capt. Sir Michael Culme-Seymour, she fired four salvos at the German battlecruiser SMS Lützow. The HMS Orion (1910) then blocked Centurion’s view, preventing her from taking further action.
Despite inflicting heavier losses on the Germans, the Grand Fleet failed to deliver a decisive victory. In terms of casualties, the British lost 14 ships and 6,094 sailors, while the Germans lost 11 vessels and approximately 2,551 men.
HMS Centurion (1911) during the interwar period
HMS Centurion (1911) serving as target ship, 1927-39. (Photo Credit: HM Armed Forces / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Following the conclusion of the First World War, the HMS Centurion was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet’s Fourth Battle Squadron. In March 1920, she was put into reserve, although the dreadnought was recommissioned that August.
During the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Centurion was part of prisoner of war (POW) exchanges. When the HMS Tobago (19818) hit a sea mine near Trebizond on November 12, 1920, the dreadnought towed the destroyer to Malta for repairs. In April 1921, she was, again, put into reserve, only to be recommissioned in August ’22.
Returning to Britain after taking part in the Chanak Crisis, Centurion was made the flagship of the Reserve Fleet at Portsmouth. She was then sent to Chatham Dockyard, where she remained through 1925. The following year, Centurion replaced the HMS Agamemnon (1906) as the fleet’s radio-controlled target ship, but was laid up and decommissioned just a few years later in a cost-saving effort.
She was, again, recommissioned in 1933 and conducted dive bomber drills that September. The aircraft scored 19 hits out of the 48 bombs dropped.
Service during World War II
HMS Centurion (1911) preparing for the Fleet Review, 1924. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)
In May 1940, following the outbreak of the Second World War, the HMS Centurion was considered for refitting as an anti-aircraft cruiser for the Norwegian Campaign. Instead, she served as a repair ship, before being converted into a blockship in 1941. She was also considered for use during a naval bombardment of Libya, but this was changed when it was believed success would be slim.
Centurion’s WWII service began out of Gibraltar. Between May and June 1942, she escorted Convoy MW 11 from Alexandria to Malta as part of Operation Vigorous. The hope was the dreadnought being part of the convoy would deceive the Axis powers into believing an operational battleship was present. The Italians didn’t take the bait, although the Germans appeared to be deceived.
Two days after acting as an escort, Centurion was attacked by nine dive bombers, which caused damage due to near misses. She fought back and successfully downed one of the enemy aircraft.
HMS Centurion (1911) during the allied invasion of Normandy
HMS Centurion (1911) serving as a breakwater off the coast of Omaha Beach, 1944. (Photo Credit: US Navy / US Navy Naval History and Heritage Command / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The HMS Centurion’s service ended on June 9, 1944, as part of the Allied invasion of Normandy. She was scuttled to serve as a breakwater as part of Mulberry A, creating sheltered water near Omaha Beach.
Mulberry Harbors were essential for the Allied invasion, prior to troops gaining access to French ports. Some historians claim the resources used to create them were wasted, particularly the sinking of old ships. That being said, these makeshift harbors brought vital supplies, equipment and soldiers ashore, aiding in the overall success of Operation Overlord.
