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World War 1

The Evolution of Sea Mines and Their Impact on War

Sea mines are some of the most terrifying and destructive weapons at a navy’s disposal. Capable of wreaking havoc on fleets, they’re a staple of war that can trace their origins to Imperial China. They’ve undergone changes over the centuries, becoming the simple, yet complex explosives they are today.

What is a Sea mine?

A sea mine is an underwater explosive device designed to detonate in the presence of vessels. There are three main types. Bottom mines rest on the seafloor in shallow water. Moored mines float above the seafloor, are attached to a weight, and are used against submarines and ships. Drift mines float freely on the surface of the water and, as such, are rarely used.

Diagram of a submarine and sea mines underwater
Types of naval mines: 1-2) drifting mine; 3-4) moored mine; 5) bottom mine; 6) torpedo mine; 7) rising mine. (Photo Credit: Los688 / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

There are three ways mines are laid. The first is via aircraft, the preferred method for offensive operations, as it provides rapid minefield replenishment with little risk. Similarly, mines laid by submarines are used offensively, but saved for covert missions.

The most economical option is surface laying, as ships can transport the most amount of mines. There are many complications with this method, as the navy carrying the mines has to take into account the risks associated with possibly not having control of the waters. As such, they’re typically reserved for defensive measures.

Explosion in the Baltic Sea
Detonation of a WWII-era mine in the Baltic Sea, 2015. (Photo Credit: Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Patrick A. Ratcliff / U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

There are countermeasures to combat the use of sea mines. Known as “minesweeping,” it involves a number of tactics, including the use of unmanned systems, advanced weaponry and sonar technology. Two ships can neutralize a minefield by dragging a cable designed to cut mooring cables, after which the mines are detonated by gunfire. As well, bottom mines can be set off by “tricking” the explosives into thinking a ship is in the vicinity.

Sea mine precursors and the American Revolution

The earliest precursors to sea mines trace back to Imperial China, where they were used against Japanese pirates. In the west, the first examples date back to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and later to Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel, who was tasked by King Charles I of England to come up with new weapons, including the failed “floating petard”.

Sketch of a sea mine with Chinese writing along the side
14th century drawing of a Chinese sea mine. (Photo Credit: PericlesofAthens / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The invention of the sea mine is directly attributed to David Bushnell, a Yale student who discovered gunpowder could explode underwater. In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, General George Washington granted him permission to sink a fleet of British ships in the Delaware River.

Bushnell’s mine consisted of gunpowder in a key, supported by a float on the water’s surface. Within the device was a gunlock rig, meaning the slightest impact would cause an explosion. It took out a small frigate, HMS Cerberus, killing four.

Global use during the 19th century

While US use was of sea mines was scarce during the 19th century, given John Quincy Adams’ belief that their use was “not fair and honest warfare,” they were prominent in Europe, particularly in the Imperial Russian Navy.

Sketch of a Nobel mine
Example of a Nobel mine, invented by Alfred Nobel. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

In 1812, Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a sea mine using an electrical circuit, and in 1853 the Jacobi mine was invented. Tied to the seafloor by an anchor, it used a cable connected to a galvanic cell powered from shore. The production of the mine was approved by the Committee for Mines and eventually phased out its competitor, the Nobel mine.

The Imperial Russian Navy also used sea mines during the Russo-Turkish and Crimean wars, the latter of which saw the laying of over 1,500 mines in the Gulf of Finland.

Sketch of a sea mine floating in the Potomac River
Sketch of an  American Civil War-era mine – known as an “infernal machine” – in the Potomac River, 1861. (Photo Credit: Alfred Waud / Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

During  the American Civil War, the Confederate Navy used sea mines against the Union naval force, sinking the USS Cairo in the Yazoo River and 27 Federal vessels during the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1964.

After 1865, the US chose the sea mine as its primary weapon for coastal defense. Initially controlled by the US Army Corps of Engineers, it was later the responsibility of the Artillery Corps, before being given to the Coast Artillery Corps in 1907.

Development during WWI and WWII

Following the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, there was an attempt to have sea mines banned as weapons of war at the 1907 Hague Peace Conference. This didn’t happen. However, it was decided drifting mines would be outlawed, due to their uncontrollable nature.

British naval personnel aboard a small boat at sea
British naval personnel laying mines, October 1914. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

Throughout the course of World War I, sea mines were used as a defensive measure against German U-boats. An example of this was the North Sea Barrage, which the Allies began laying in 1918. It spanned 250 miles from Scotland to Norway, and consisted of 72,000 mines, taking out six submarines and damaging numerous German vessels.

The Germans fought back with their own mines, sinking British merchant and naval vessels. One of the German Navy’s most successful mining campaigns was the sinking of the HMHS Britannic by SM U-73.

Bomb disposal experts pulling a sea mine out of the ocean
Bomb disposal experts pulling a mine out of the waters off the coast of southeast Britain, February 1940. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)

World War II saw sea mines become an offensive, rather than defensive, weapon. German U-boats patrolling the Atlantic used them to mine British ports and routes, and the overall design of the explosives changed. While before they only detonated upon contact, they could now explode based on acoustic, magnetic and pressure changes in the water – they were even programmed to only detonate against certain ships.

One of the largest strategic uses of sea mines was Operation Starvation, in which the US Navy laid 12,000 mines along Japanese shipping routes in the Pacific. This not only sank 650 Japanese ships, it showed how they could be used for psychological warfare, as nearly all ships were made to stay in port or divert course.

Sea mines in the post-WWII era

Following the end of WWII, sea mines largely fell out of use, as the majority of countries were scaling back their militaries. This was especially true of the US, as its military believed they would not be a part of advanced warfare. However, it found that its disregard for the explosives greatly affected their abilities during the Korean War.

The Korean Navy held up the US fleet for almost a week, despite having only 45 vessels, because it laid 3,000 mines in the waters off North Korea. As well, 70 percent of the US Navy’s losses in Korea were the result of mine warfare, made worse by the fact that only two percent of sailors were trained in minesweeping. This prompted US Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Forrest Sherman to change the service’s stance.
Mineman Second Class Franklin Marshall wading in the water in diving gear
Mineman Second Class Franklin Marshall of the US Navy’s Explosive Ordnance Disposal Team searches for mines in DaNang Harbor, Vietnam, April 1966. (Photo Credit: US Navy / Interim Archives / Getty Images)

The US developed the Destructor-class of mines in 1967, and while highly-sophisticated, they were rarely used in Vietnam. The Quickstrike Mine was favored by US military forces, as it was relatively cheap, developed for strategic use and could be used defensively.

The use of sea mines today

Given the destructiveness of sea mines, international law now requires that all signatory countries declare areas in which they’ve been placed. However, this is not a full-proof system, as the exact locations are not revealed. As well, some countries refuse to comply with the law and therefore do not disclose such information.

Sea mines aboard an Iraqi barge
Members of a US Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal team inspect mines camouflaged as barrels on the deck of an Iraqi shipping barge in the Arabian Gulf, March 21, 2003. (Photo Credit: Richard Moore / U.S. Navy / Getty Images)

Today, the US uses two different types of mines. The first is the aforementioned Quickstrike Mine, designed for use against subsurface and surface craft. They’re placed in shallow waters by aircraft. The second is the Submarine-Launched Mobile Mine (SLMM). As the name suggests, it’s deployed by submarines and typically used in areas where other mine-laying techniques aren’t an option. Each SLMM is equipped with an MK37 torpedo that has a mine target detection device.

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World War 1

The Shotguns of WWII: Model 1897 and Model 1912

Aside from a flame thrower, there are few close-range weapons as deadly as a shotgun. Shotguns are terrifyingly effective at short ranges, as their shot spread does not need to be precisely aimed to score a hit. At longer ranges, a shotgun peppers the target with fast-moving metal balls, while at close ranges shotguns can effortlessly inflict horrific wounds. For these reasons, the shotgun has found itself at home in close quarters combat in wartime, sometimes controversially. Until the 1960s the United States’ shotguns of choice have been the Winchester Model 1897 and 1912.

Both of these shotguns started life as commercially-sold firearms but quickly proved themselves on the battlefield.

Model 1897

Winchester Model 1897
A Winchester Model 1897 (Photo Credit: Asams10 / Wikipedia / Public Domain)

The first of these was the Model 1897. This pump-action shotgun was produced by the Winchester Repeating Arms company and set the standard for which all shotguns that followed were measured against. As its name suggests it was introduced in 1897. Amazingly, this weapon stayed in production until 1957, with over 1 million being built in total. This makes the Model 1897 one of the most successful pump-action shotguns of all time.

With this “take down” ability the 1897’s barrel and magazine could be completely removed, which made transportation and maintenance easier. The concept of a removable barrel is now standard for pump-action shotguns.
The gun came in either 16 or 12 gauge and with a number of different barrel lengths, ranging from 20 to 36 inches. One of the 1897’s most noticeable design features is its external hammer, which protrudes out of the back of the receiver when the pump is slid back to cycle the gun. This action ejects the spent shell, cocks the hammer, and pushes a new shell into the chamber. Interestingly, this shotgun lacks a trigger disconnector, which means if the trigger is held down, the gun will fire as soon as the pump returns to its home position. Because of this the Model 1897 can be fired at very high speeds.
The Model 1897’s first use in combat was with US troops in the Philippine-American War of 1899. Not only was it the weapon’s first time in war, but it was also the first shotgun issued by the US military on a large scale. However, the 1897 rose to fame after America joined the First World War.
Realizing that rifles were not suited to the extremely close-quarters fighting happening in the trenches of the Great War, the US brought in the Model 1897 for these exact circumstances. For trench use, pre-existing Model 1897’s were modified with a perforated heat shield that covered the barrel – stopping the user from burning their hands – and a bayonet lug. In this form, the weapon was known as the Trench Gun.
Its high fire rate, devastating power, and 20-inch barrel made it extremely good at clearing trenches. Reportedly, experienced trap shooters in the ranks were given Model 1897s and blasted enemy grenades out of the air.
The shotgun was so deadly that Germany famously protested against its use, stating it caused “unnecessary suffering”. This was an interesting view coming from a country that fielded chemical weapons. As the Germans claimed that the shotgun broke the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare the US took the situation seriously. When they determined there was no foul play involved, Germany responded with threats to punish any captured American shotgun-users.

The Model 1897 was once again used in WWII, and even in Vietnam in limited numbers. By this time though it had been mostly replaced by the Model 1912.

Model 1912

Winchester Model 1912
Winchester Model 1912 (Model 12) take-down slide-action (pump-action) 12 gauge shotgun manufactured in 1948 (Photo Credit: Yaf / Wikipedia / Photo Credit)

The Model 1912 succeeded the Model 1897 in much the same way the Model 1897 did to the 1893. Although this time the weapon was designed by T.C. Johnson, not Browning. As an evolutionary next step from the Model 1897, the Model 1912 had an internal hammer but retained the same pump-action and ability to fire when the action was closed. Starting production in 1912 and ending in 1964, almost 2 million Model 1912s were built.

Like its predecessor, this shotgun was used in WWI, WWII, Korea, and Vietnam, where it was also given a perforated heat shield and bayonet lug. The weapon was mainly used in the Pacific theatre of WWII by US Marines against the Japanese, once again to great success. Deadly, reliable, and compact, it was perfectly suited to clearing Japanese positions and bunkers.
The Model 1912 was a sturdy, well-engineered weapon that, along with the 1897, set the standard for shotgun designs. However, by the 1960s this relatively expensive shotgun was simply unable to compete with newer, cheaper designs from rival manufacturers. For this reason, the Model 1812 was discontinued in 1964, seven years after the Model 1897.
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World War 1

The HMS Dreadnought (1906) is the Only Battleship to Sink a Submarine

Illustration showing a Royal Navy Dreadnought battleship 1906. (Photo by: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

The HMS Dreadnought was a vessel that quite literally changed the path of naval warfare and design philosophy. She brought in a whole host of new and revolutionary features that rendered every battleship that had come before her obsolete overnight. Fast, well armored, and carrying heavy guns that were complemented by an effective fire control system, it was the most powerful ship in the world. In fact, she was so influential that she spawned an entire generation of battleships named dreadnoughts.

For all of her greatness, Dreadnought served a relatively lackluster career and was quickly superseded and rendered obsolete by the very arms race she sparked. With that being said, it carries the notable distinction of being the only battleship to sink a submarine.

Before Dreadnought

Before the hull of Dreadnought was laid down, battleship designs mostly followed the expected means of fighting at sea: by saturating the enemy with overwhelming firepower at relatively close ranges. As such, battleships were armed with guns widely varying in caliber to handle different threats at different ranges.

As ranges grew, guns grew larger to maintain their effectiveness. Eventually, ships were using heavy guns bigger than 10 inches in caliber and firing at ranges so large that observers had to wait for the shells to actually reach the target before making corrections. The massive assortment of smaller weapons still found on ships caused problems, with the smoke they generated blinded observers. Furthermore, it was hard for observers to tell which shell splashes occurred from which guns, as the target would become bracketed in fire by all available calibers.
Because of this, naval designers were progressing towards the idea of “all big gun” ships. These vessels would carry a powerful main armament that served as the primary offensive battery at the expense of many smaller guns. Navies around the world were slowly working towards this arrangement when the British dropped HMS Dreadnought.
It was the sixth British vessel to use the fearsome name, which meant “fear nothing”.
Entering service in 1906, this battleship revolutionized how battleships were not only built but how they were used.

HMS Dreadnought

HMS Dreadnought
Placed in reserve in 1919, the once-revolutionary warship was sold for scrap in 1922. Circa 1906. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror Archive / Mirrorpix / Mirrorpix via Getty Images)

The ship possessed a number of attributes that had not yet been seen all on one ship before. Naturally, as a battleship, she carried large and powerful guns, but hers were different. She was one of the first battleships to be fitted with a number of instruments that not only helped establish a targets range and its required lead but also sent that information electronically to each turret.

Aside from this, she carried twenty-seven 12-pdr (3 in (76 mm)) guns.
In terms of armor, Dreadnought was similar to the pre-Dreadnought Lord Nelson class – up to 305 mm on the gun turrets and 280 mm on the belt.
HMS Dreadnought 1906
The Dreadnought battleship at Spithead, launched on February 10, 1906, United Kingdom, from L’Illustrazione Italiana, Year XXXIII, No 46, November 18, 1906.

While these features were certainly impressive, what truly set Dreadnought apart from the rest was that she did all this while being exceptionally fast. One of the main design requirements for the vessel was that she had to be quick. Previously, battleships usually prioritized firepower and armor over speed, but Dreadnought did it all.

She was the first battleship to be powered by turbines instead of the older reciprocating triple-expansion steam engines. This meant that while older battleships were chugging along at around 18 knots, Dreadnought – all 22,000 tons of her – was cruising at 21 knots.
Upon her introduction, her impact was so great that, ironically, it made navies around the world react at a previously unseen speed. Soon, navies had ships that at the very least rivaled Dreadnought and in many cases superseded her. Over the next decade, much more powerful ships would enter service, armed with larger guns and even thicker armor. These were known as super-dreadnoughts.
As a piece of technology Dreadnought was groundbreaking, however, her career was rather unimpressive. She served as the Home Fleet’s flagship for a while but was replaced in 1912 by more capable vessels. In 1915 a German U-boat snuck into Pentland Firth in an attempt to sink ships from the Grand Fleet.
The U-29 was spotted after firing her torpedoes and then subsequently chased down by Dreadnought. The flagship rammed into the submarine, cutting the sub in half and taking all hands. The chase only lasted a few minutes.
As WWI went on it became clear that the now decade-old battleship was past her prime. When the war ended Dreadnought was placed into reserve and scrapped in 1923.
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World War 1

Here’s How Fish & Chips Helped British Morale During WWII

Soldiers of the Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) line up for Fish and Chips from a mobile shop set up in the Wathgill Camp during Territorial manoeuvers on 4 August 1936 in Richmond, Yorkshire, United Kingdom. (Photo by Fox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)

You may take our tea, sugar, biscuits, and jam, but not our fish and chips!

To defeat Germany during WWII the British population had to give up staple items, mostly without much objection. They were prepared to have their gas, bacon, sugar, and butter rationed for the sake of winning the war, but fish and chips were one step too far. This classic British dish continued to be consumed without interruption for the duration of the war.

As suggested by the name, the humble meal of fish and chips contains fried fish in a crispy batter served with a portion of chips. It is not known where exactly this meal originated from, but it was extremely popular by the late 1800s. At the start of the 20th century, there were over 20,000 fish and chip shops in Britain.

Rationing

Women protecting Potatoes in the UK
Members of the Women’s Land Army (WLA) stacking and protecting potatoes from frost with layers of straw during the potato harvest on 28th September 1939 on farmland in Monmouthshire, South Wales, United Kingdom. (Photo by Maeers/Fox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images).

During the world wars, military production and disruption in supply chains meant many foods and other staples of everyday items were less available, or completely impossible to source. To make sure that everyone had a fair share of these small supplies, the British government introduced rationing. At first, this affected fuel, but later came to include basics such as eggs, sugar, and jam. Meat was also rationed, although game meat was not. Things that were not rationed, like some fruits and vegetables, were still hard to come by.

Rationing became a source of morale-boosting campaigns, like “Dig for Victory.” Governmental officials also received ration books, which helped the population feel at ease that they weren’t being unfairly treated. Even Her Majesty The Queen had one. A princess at the time, Elizabeth saved up her clothing coupons to purchase enough material to make her wedding dress.
Meanwhile, fish and chips remained a popular meal.

Maintaining fish and chips

WWII Food Rationing
7th April 1943: Shoppers queue for their fish in Eltham. This particular shopkeeper has posted a notice that only local people will be served and identity cards inspected before the purchase can be made. (Photo by Fox Photos/Getty Images)

The government ensured that there was a continuous supply of fish and potatoes during WWI and WWII.

This was important, as the supply chain for the meal, particularly the fish, was heavily disrupted. Many fishing vessels had been requisitioned by the Royal Navy, and those still in use were subject to attacks from German U-boats. The price of fish rose considerably, but the government managed to maintain a steady supply.
Reportedly the quality of the meal suffered, as Britons lacked decent fat for frying.
Eating Fish and Chips in the UK during WWII
Bevin Boys make a lunch of fish and chips on January 23, 1944. (Photo by Daily Herald Archive/National Science & Media Museum/SSPL via Getty Images)

Not only was fish and chips an enjoyable meal, but it also saved lives in combat zones. British troops were known to use the name of the popular dish to identify friendly troops: one would shout fish, and the other would reply chips.

During WWI it is suspected that fish and chips were fed to British troops in the trenches and functioned as a key food for keeping hunger away. Belgian caterers fed British troops large quantities of oil-fried potatoes.
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World War 1

The Most Anticipated War Movies of 2022

There’s nothing we love more than a good war film, whether it be a fictitious story or the retelling of an event that actually happened. There are quite a few war- and military history-themed movies being released in 2022, and here are the ones we’re most looking forward to watching.

Operation Mincemeat

You’ll be hard pressed to find someone who doesn’t like Colin Firth, which is why we’re excited for the release of Operation Mincemeat. Based upon the novel by Ben Macintyre, it covers the events surrounding the British intelligence operation during the Second World War.

Matthew MacFadyen and Colin Firth staring at a corpse hidden beneath a white sheet
Operation Mincemeat, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / MovieStillsDB)

Operation Mincemeat was wartime deception at its finest, disguising the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943. Through the use of a human corpse, the planting of “evidence” and a fake plan to invade Sardinia and Greece (to put it simply), the Royal Navy and MI5 were able to liberate Sicily quickly and with fewer losses than anticipated.

All Quiet on the Western Front

All Quiet on the Western Front is arguably one of the best books about World War I. Written by Erich Maria Remarque in 1929, it chronicles the experience of a German soldier during the Great War and the detachment he feels upon returning to civilian life.

Paul Bäumer lying in a trench
Lew Ayres portraying Paul Bäumer in the 1930 film version of All Quiet on the Western Front. (Photo Credit: Universal Pictures / Sunset Boulevard / CORBIS / Getty Images)

The 2022 film adaption of the famed novel is being directed by Edward Berger and stars Daniel Brühl, Devid Striesow, and Albrecht Schuch. Little has been revealed regarding its production and anticipated completion date, other than it is scheduled for release through Netflix at some point this year.

Come Out Fighting

Come Out Fighting is set in late 1944 and focuses on the US Army after it made its way to the French border with Germany. Unbeknownst to the American forces, Hitler deploys a secret weapon to turn the tide: an ME-262 fighter jet.

The resulting aerial battle forces Lieutenant Frank Ross, a P-51 Mustang pilot, to eject over enemy lines. While waiting to be rescued, he finds himself in the middle of an enemy ambush against an American tanker patrol, the famed 761st Tank Battalion – better known as the Black Panthers.
Three Black Panthers aboard a military tank
Members of Company D of the Black Panthers in Coburg, 1945. (Photo Credit: US Army / National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The film is slated for release sometime this year and has a star-studded cast that includes Dolph Lundgren, Michael Jai White, and Kellan Lutz.

Munich: The Edge of War

Munich: The Edge of War is a fictitious retelling of the 1938 Munich Agreement, which allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Based on the novel by Robert Harris, it’s a historical drama that uses the Munich Conference as the backdrop for its plot,

While featuring events that actually happened in pre-war Europe, the story told is largely fictional. It focuses on Hugh Legat, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain’s secretary, and his friend, resistance member Paul von Hartmann, trying to prevent the Second World War.

The film was given a limited US theatrical release before being placed on Netflix in late January 2022. Be warned: Chamberlain is portrayed in a more sympathetic view than usual.

Top Gun: Maverick

How have we waited over 35 years for a sequel to Top Gun?! The film is set some 30 years after the first, with Pete “Maverick” Mitchell (played by Tom Cruise) continuing to be the high-flying US Navy pilot we know him to be.

While training a detachment of Top Gun graduates for a specialized mission, he meets the son of his late friend, Radar Lieutenant Intercept Officer Lt. Nick Bradshaw. As Paramount Pictures states, “Facing an uncertain future and confronting the ghosts of his past, Maverick is drawn into a confrontation with his own deepest fears, culminating in a mission that demands the ultimate sacrifice from those who will be chosen to fly it.”
Pete "Maverick" Mitchell in the sunset
Top Gun: Maverick, 2022. (Photo Credit: Hope72 / MovieStillsDB)

Initially slated for release in 2019, it was delayed to “allow the production to work out all the complex flight sequences,” and then further postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. Fingers crossed it doesn’t get delayed again!

Wolf Hound

Wolf Hound is inspired by an elite German air unit known for carrying out a host of special operations missions during WWII. It centers around Jewish-American fighter pilot Captain David Holden, who, in 1944, is ambushed behind enemy lines in German-occupied France. His mission: rescue the crew of a captured B-17 Flying Fortress and evade the enemy.

British soldiers surrounding a captured Luftwaffe pulsejet-engined Fieseler Fi-103R Reichenberg piloted flying bomb
British soldiers examine a captured Luftwaffe pulsejet-engined Fieseler Fi-103R Reichenberg piloted flying bomb from the “Leonidas Squadron” of V Gruppe, Kampfgeschwader 200, 1945. (Photo Credit: Chris Ware / Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

The real-life German Kampfgeschwader 200 (KG-200) shot down, repaired, and flew Allied aircraft. Along with capturing aircraft, the squadron conducted long-range reconnaissance flights, bombing, and transport operations, and tested new aircraft designs.

At present, there isn’t a concrete release date for Wolf Hound, other than it’s expected to be released later this year.

22-The Unforgotten Soldier

Written and directed by Sam Medina, 22-The Unforgotten Soldier follows two US Marine Corps veterans trying not to become part of the statistic of 22 suicides per day. The main character is 40-year-old Dann Gonzalez, who was left wheelchair-bound after being injured during combat in Afghanistan.

Sam Medina looking to the side
Sam Medina, 2021. (Photo Credit: Axelle / Bauer-Griffin / FilmMagic / Getty Images)

A portion of the money used to produce the film was obtained through an IndieGoGo campaign, and according to Medina, the primary objective is to raise awareness about the difficulties veterans face upon returning to civilian life.

According to a study by the Department of Veterans Affairs, over 65,000 veterans have died by suicide since 2010. Its 2019 National Veteran Suicide Prevention Annual Report found the veteran suicide rate was 1.5 times that of non-veterans.
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World War 1

Why Did Flying Boats Experience a Dip in Popularity Following WWII?

Starting from as soon as man conquered flight to the end of the Second World War, flying boats were an extremely popular type of aircraft. With the ability to take off from water (and sometimes land), these planes were extremely versatile, and thanks to their virtually unlimited runway space, were able to grow to immense sizes. They opened up travel to remote locations, and were particularly useful in military roles, where they could serve as rescue planes.

While flying boats remain in use today, their popularity plummeted in the years following WWII.

Flying boat variants

The concept of flying boats seems simple. They behave like normal aircraft when in the sky, but are able to land on water. While the terms “floatplane,” “seaplane” and “flying boats” are often used interchangeably when referring to the aircraft, they’re actually different.

JRF-5 Goose on the runway
JRF-5 Goose assigned to Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida, 1941. (Photo Credit: USN / Naval Air Station Jacksonville / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Floatplanes and flying boats can be designed to land on both land and water, and are thus known as amphibious aircraft. The term “seaplane” is all-encompassing and used to describe any aircraft that can land on water, regardless of the exact methods involved.

Versatility and safety

Aircraft that can operate without pre-built runways are extremely useful, especially back in the 20th century when the vast majority of areas were without modern infrastructure. This was due to a number of reasons, including the high costs associated with pouring new runways. For perspective, Long Island’s Floyd Bennett Field was the only concrete runway in the US as of 1938.

Flying boats could travel to the most remote locations and still have a place to land. With the ability to refuel at sea, as opposed to airfields, they were able to fly further than their non-amphibious counterparts. The length of a runaway was also an important factor when dictating the size of aircraft, as larger planes require longer take-off distances. Even if a runway could accommodate a larger machine, a trip was impossible if the airfields at refueling stops couldn’t.
Crew members aboard a PBY Catalina
PBY Catalina at sea anchor. (Photo Credit: US Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

With the virtually unlimited take-off distances of the ocean, flying boats could be built larger and heavier. In fact, before the end of WWII, seaplanes were among the largest aircraft in the world. This, again, made them extremely handy for traveling to remote locations, as they could carry greater loads and were not limited by the runways at the destination or refueling locations.

Another advantage was safety. When a conventional aircraft experiences issues over the ocean, they have to ditch in the water. Flying boats, on the other hand, could simply land, even in the event of engine failure, allowing the crew to await rescue in safety. In some situations, they could land, carry out repairs themselves and take off again.

Military use during the World Wars

Flying boats became commonplace during World War I, during which the Curtiss flying boat was the only US-designated aircraft to see combat. Another used during the conflict was the Georges Levy G.L40 – better known as the Levy-Le Pen – a three-seat French biplane.

After this, flying boats grew in size and capability. The versatility and safety they provided made them particularly attractive to navies around the world, largely because their runways couldn’t be destroyed by bombings. They served as excellent transport, bomber and reconnaissance aircraft.
Curtiss H-12L on the runway
Curtiss H-12L in US Navy service. (Photo Credit: US Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

During WWII, the PBY Catalina, Grumman G-21 Goose, Martin PBM Mariner and the Short S.25 Sunderland were produced in large numbers. They were typically used to conduct anti-submarine patrol and gunfire spotting for battleships in the Pacific Theater and during the Battle of the Atlantic. They also excelled in search and rescue roles, as they could land next to downed pilots and pull them to safety.

The US Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy, in particular, invested heavily in flying boats and floatplanes. The Japanese are thought to have flown the best flying boats of the war, the Kawanishi H8K, which were involved in a second raid on Pearl Harbor. However, poor visibility failed to produce any real damage.

In regard to the US Navy, the usefulness of flying boats was shown prior to the Battle of Midway, when Catalinas spotted a fleet of Japanese ships approaching Midway Island.

No longer necessary

Despite being safe, practical and versatile, flying boats slowly fell out of use following the conclusion of the Second World War. The US Navy continued to operate the aircraft until the 1960s, and in the 1950s even tried to develop a jet-powered flying boat bomber, the Martin P6M SeaMaster. However, numerous issues with the design made it incapable of service.

Martin P6M SeaMaster in flight
Martin P6M SeaMaster in flight, 1955. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While still in use today, the number of flying boats is nowhere near what it was in the run up to and during WWII. During the island hopping campaign in the Pacific, the US constructed large airstrips that were fit for use by heavy bombers like the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. These either stayed under military control or evolved into civilian airports, making flying boats redundant in those areas.

There was also the issue of inclement weather. While the ability to land on water initially made flying boats appealing, their pilots were often at the mercy of Mother Nature. Rough seas often prevented landings and take-offs, whereas land-based aircraft could still operate.
Furthermore, worldwide infrastructure reached a point where airfields were more and more common, even in remote locations. This was compounded by modern advancements in aircraft design, which have produced faster planes with a greater range. On the flip side, the shape of flying boats hinders their speed and aerodynamic efficiency.
Kawanishi H8K2 51-085 in flight
Kawanishi H8K2 51-085 of the 851st Kōkutai in flight, prior to being shot down by a US Navy PB4Y-1, 1944. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

For these reasons, flying boats are no longer necessary in the quantities seen back in the 1940s. They continue to fulfill niche roles today, including maritime patrol and forest fire suppression.

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World War 1

The Type B Bus ‘Pigeon Loft’ Was A Strange Sight on the Western Front

Over time, there have been some odd vehicles seen on battlefields, but few were as eye-catching as the Type B Bus “Pigeon Loft.” The Allied forces prominently used the vehicles during World War I. While technological advances soon made them unnecessary, the contraptions are still fondly remembered today.

World War I featured many examples of real innovation

World War I featured the globe’s most considerable powers. 100 years post-Industrial Revolution, they were looking to use new technology to get an edge on the battlefield. Some of these innovations helped with the fight.

George Patton stands in front of a tank during World War I
George Patton standing with a tank during World War I. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)

Tanks were first introduced during the war. They allowed armies to tread over challenging terrain, and played a role in the Battle of Somme. Machine guns were also prominent. While they were hand-cranked at the beginning of the conflict, by 1918 they were fully automatic and could do tremendous damage.

The telegraph was invented, but not yet practical on battlefields

While new inventions were seen on battlefields, they weren’t always appropriate. With the war being fought by global powers, communication became incredibly important. Both the Allied and Central powers needed to coordinate with each other over battle strategy and warn allies about enemy approaches.

The Central Telegraph Office in Paris
Central Telegraph Office in Paris, France. (Photo Credit: PHAS / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

The telegraph had been invented by 1914, but wasn’t necessarily effective on the battlefield. The device was heavy and cumbersome. As well, it was plagued with technological issues. Rather than using the latest technology, armies turned to a tool commonly used in much older conflicts: enter the carrier pigeon.

The pigeon turned out to be the perfect animal for the job

The first use of carrier pigeons on the battlefield dates back to the 6th Century BC, when Cyrus, the King of Persia, used them to send messages across his empire. In 1914, they were still an effective way of sending messages. Pigeons were the best choice of bird for the job, as they could travel massive distances and still return home. They were also blazingly fast, able to travel at up to 60 miles per hour.

Italian soldiers using a Pigeon Loft
Italian soldiers using a Pigeon Loft. (Photo Credit: Mondadori / Getty Images)

The birds were also somewhat disposable. Enemy combatants could thwart a message delivery by shooting down the pigeons while they were in the air. To combat this issue, armies sent several pigeons carrying the same message to make sure it got to the intended party.

The birds used by the Allies showed ingenuity and bravery

The carrier pigeons used by the Allies in World War I weren’t only intelligent and fast, they were also incredibly courageous. In 1914, while the Germans were marching toward the River Marne, birders were released to warn Allies about their approach. The message got to command headquarters in time and prevented disaster.

Cher Ami sitting in someone's hands
Cher Ami, the pigeon. (Photo Credit: AnimalWised / YouTube)

In 1918, a group of American soldiers were surrounded by German combatants. Several birds were released to call for urgent aid. The pigeons got the message to headquarters and the soldiers were freed. One of the birds who delivered the message, Cher Ami, was awarded the Croix de Guerre, one of France’s most prestigious military honors.

The design of Pigeon Lofts changed over the course of the war

The Pigeon Loft was never intended to be used on the battlefield. Once the conflict started, the vehicles were moved from the streets of London to the Front. They were somewhat crude vehicles, typically on carriages that were pulled by horses. Over the course of the war, however, they were redesigned for combat.

British soldiers with a Type B Bus "Pigeon Loft"
British troops of the 37th Division boarding Type B Buses at Arras following their return from the capture of Monchy-le-Preux. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)

In the latter days of the conflict, the Pigeon Loft was attached to the roof of re-outfitted Type B Buses. Among the improvements: “The passenger seats on both levels were removed, the windows on the first floor were shuttered with boards, and the fence on the second floor was replaced by windows, cut out and covered with nets through which birds could fly simultaneously at the required time.”

Pigeon Lofts are still remembered today

During World War II, pigeons were still used on battlefields. However, Pigeon Lofts were no longer used. That doesn’t mean the vehicles were forgotten.

Type-B Bus "Pigeon Loft" parked on the side of the road
Type-B Bus “Pigeon Loft” on the Western Front during World War I. (Photo Credit: John Warwick Brooke / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Today, Pigeon Loft models are commonly sold to collectors.

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World War 1

The Amazing Life of Eugene Bullard: Boxer, Nightclub Owner and Military Pilot

Eugene Bullard was the first Black American military pilot, flying combat missions for France during the First World War. He left the United States with hopes of a better life without racial segregation and found what he was looking for overseas. Life later saw him return to the US, where he found his exploits in France were largely unknown.

Early life and journey to Paris

Eugene Bullard was born on October 9, 1895, in Columbus, Georgia. During his youth, he witnessed a White mob attempt to lynch his father. While the elder Bullard expressed a belief that African-Americans needed to maintain their dignity in the face of White prejudice, his son dreamed of moving to France, where slavery had been abolished and Black citizens were treated better.

Eugene Bullard standing in front of a Caudron G.3
Eugene Bullard standing with a Caudron G.3, 1917. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

At the age of 11, Bullard ran away from home, with the aim of somehow making it to France. After stopping in Atlanta, he joined a group of English gypsies traveling across Georgia, for whom he began tending horses. It was through this group he learned England, too, no longer had a racial color line, and switched his sights there.

Eugene Bullard in a boxing stance
Eugene Bullard during his boxing years. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While in England, Bullard joined the Freedman Pickaninnies, an African-American slapstick troupe. He was also employed as a dock worker and as a target for an amusement park attraction. He began boxing, training under famed boxer Dixie Kid, who arranged for him to fight in Paris. He became enamored with the city, saying, “It seemed to me that French democracy influenced the minds of both black and white Americans there and helped us all act like brothers.”

He continued to box in Paris until the start of World War I.

Military service and aviation during World War I

On October 14, 1914, Bullard enlisted in the French military and was assigned to the 3rd Marching Regiment of the Foreign Legion. In 1915, he served as a machine gunner and saw combat during the Battle of the Somme. He was also at Artois, and fought during the second Champagne offensive along the Meuse River.

While fighting during the Battle of Verdun as part of the 170th French Infantry Regiment, he was seriously injured by an exploding artillery shell, which ripped through his left thigh, narrowly missing his femoral artery.
Eugene Bullard standing with other members of the French military
Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

While recuperating from his wounds, a friend bet him $2,000 to learn how to fly. In October 1916, he volunteered for the French Air Service as an air gunner and was sent to Aerial Gunnery School in Cazaux, Gironde. He then underwent flight training at Avord and Châteauroux and received his pilot’s license from the Aéro-Club de France on May 17, 1917.

Following his training in Avord, he joined the Lafayette Flying Corps with other American-born aviators serving with the French Air Service. Those with the corps flew alongside French pilots in squadrons across the Western Front. In June 1917, Bullard was promoted to corporal, and two months later was assigned to Escadrille Spa.93.

During this time, he took part in 20 combat missions. He was also a unique flier, bringing with him a monkey named Jimmy, and was nicknamed the “Black Swallow of Death” due to his race and the fact the 170th French Infantry Regiment were referred to as the “Swallows of Death.”
Eugene Bullard with Jimmy the monkey sitting on his outstretched arm
Eugene Bullard with his monkey, Jimmy. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

When the US entered the war, the US Army Air Service convened a medical board to recruit Americans serving with the Lafayette Flying Corps for the American Expeditionary Forces. Bullard was not chosen. While told it was because he wasn’t a first lieutenant or an officer, he later learned it was because of his race.

Bullard was transferred to the service battalion of the 170th Infantry Regiment in January 1918, after getting into an argument with a French commissioned officer, and continued to serve after the Armistice.

Success during the interwar years

Following his discharge from the French military, Bullard returned to Paris, where he worked as a jazz drummer at Zelli’s. He secured a club license for the establishment, which allowed it to stay open past midnight. Before long, it was the most celebrated nightclub in Montmartre.

He also visited Egypt for a time, where he fought two prize fights and performed as part of a jazz ensemble at Hotel Claridge.
Eugene Bullard standing in front of an airplane in uniform
Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Upon his return to Paris, he managed Le Grand Duc nightclub, purchasing the establishment in 1928. He hired musicians to perform at private parties and gained a host of famous friends, including poet Langston Hughes, French resistance member Josephine Baker, air ace Charles Nungesser, and musician Louis Armstrong. Eventually, he became the owner of a second nightclub, L’Escadrille.

His fame in Paris was so notable that author Ernest Hemingway based a character on him in his 1926 novel, The Sun Also Rises.

Portrait of Eugene Bullard in uniform
Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Bullard also opened an athletic club, which offered boxing, ping pong, hydrotherapy, and massage. He also worked as a trainer for boxers Victor “Young” Perez and Panama Al Brown. In 1923, he married Marcelle Straumann. The pair separated in 1935 and Bullard gained custody of their children.

Espionage and service during World War II

When the Second World War began, the French government asked Bullard to spy on the Germans who frequented his nightclub.

Following the German invasion of France, he volunteered for and served with the 51st Infantry Regiment, defending Orléans during the Battle of France. He was wounded by an artillery shell and fled to Spain, before returning to the US in July 1940. He spent time recuperating in a New York hospital, but never fully recovered from his injury.
War medals lined up in a row
Eugene Bullard’s service medals and decorations. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

For his service, he received 14 medals and decorations, including the Croix de Guerre, the médaille Militaire, and the Croix du combattant volontaire 1914-1918.

Little recognition in the United States

Bullard’s notoriety didn’t follow him across the Atlantic. He was unable to regain his Paris nightclub, as it had been destroyed during the war. He purchased an apartment in Harlem with a financial settlement he received from the French government. During this period, he worked as a security guard, a perfume salesman, a longshoreman, and as an interpreter for Louis Armstrong.

Eugene Bullard laying flowers at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Paris, France
Eugene Bullard at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Paris, France, 1954. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In 1949, Bullard was beaten by a mob during the Peekskill Riots in August 1949. The attack was prompted by a concert held by entertainer and activist Paul Robeson to benefit the Civil Rights Congress. Before Robeson arrived, a mob containing local law enforcement and members of the state attacked the audience. A total of 13 people were injured, including Bullard.

The concert was postponed until September 4, 1949, and occurred without incident. However, as concertgoers were leaving the venue, rocks were thrown at their windshields by a crowd of hostile residents.

Bronze statue of Eugene Bullard
Statue of Eugene Bullard outside the Museum of Aviation in Warner Robins, Georgia. (Photo Credit: Michael Rivera / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1954, Bullard was invited by the French government to rekindle the everlasting flame at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier under the Arc de Triomphe. Five years later, General Charles de Gaulle made him a knight of the Légion d’honneur, calling him a “true French hero.”

Following his death, Bullard received many posthumous honors, including being inducted into the inaugural class of the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame in 1989 and being named a second lieutenant in the US Air Force in 1994. The Museum of Aviation in Warner Robins, Georgia also erected a statue in his honor.
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World War 1

Humphrey Bogart Served In Two World Wars In Very Different Roles

Although Humphrey Bogart is remembered as one of the greatest Hollywood actors of all time, we should also remember him for his efforts during the First and Second World Wars. With an exemplary time in the service to a mysterious scar with several accounts for how it happened, Humphrey Bogart’s amazing military career may have been overshadowed by his acting career, but never forgotten. Let’s take a closer look at the famous actors’ time spent in service of his country.

World War I and a mysterious scar

Humphrey Bogart in the navy
Humphrey Bogart in sailor dress while he was in the Navy, 1919. (Photo Credit: Bettmann/ Getty Images)

Humphrey Bogart was born on December 25, 1899, in New York City. After Bogart failed out of Phillips Academy in 1918, he had no viable career options and decided to join the United States Navy. Sixteen days after the Armistice was signed and the war ended, Bogart joined the troopship, USS Leviathan.

Humphrey Bogart spent most of the time in the Navy ferrying troops between the United States and Europe. By all accounts, Humphrey was a model sail0r during his time in the Navy.

USS Leviathan
The troopship USS Leviathan in a dazzle camouflage pattern, 1918. The Leviathan was formerly the SS Vaterland, a German, Hamburg America Line, ship, seized by the U.S. government in 1917. (Photo Credit: Hirz/ Getty Images)

Another account of how Bogart received this scar involves a German prisoner of war and a failed escape attempt. Supposedly, while transporting German POWs to the United States for incarceration, Bogart was struck in the mouth by the handcuffs of a prisoner trying to make a run for it.

The most likely explanation for Humphrey Bogart’s scar is from a childhood injury. Hollywood studios may have hyped up the wartime story to make Bogart seem tough.

In February 1919, Bogart was transferred to the USS Santa Olivia but missed the boat when it sailed to Europe in April 1919. Luckily, he was not listed as a deserter because he promptly turned himself into the Navy port authority. However, he was punished with three days of solitary confinement. Nonetheless, Humphrey Bogart was honorably discharged on June 18, 1919. He reached the rank of seaman second class and was decorated with a modest Victory medal with clasp.

Coast guard volunteer during the Second World War

Humphrey Bogart in Action in the North Atlantic
Humphrey Bogart (middle) in the 1943 movie, Action in the North Atlantic. (Photo Credit: United Archives/ Getty Images)

During the Second World War, Humphrey Bogart once again decided to serve his country. By the Second World War, Bogart had already established himself as an extremely successful movie actor. In 1944, Bogart attempted to reenlist in the Navy but was denied because of his age.

Instead of giving up, Bogart decided to volunteer both his yacht, Santan, and himself for service with the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve. Santan was used as a patrol vessel, and Bogart reported for duty once a week at Balboa, patrolling the shore.

Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall broadcasting for troops overseas
Armed Forces Radio Services broadcaster Jack Brown interviews Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall for broadcast to troops overseas during the Second World War. (Photo Credit: U.S. Federal Government/ Wikimedia Commons via public domain)

During his time with the Coast Guard, Humphrey Bogart often received visits from Lauren Bacall, with whom he was having an affair. She would often drive down to the coast to Balboa and meet him at the Coast Guard station during his break from his volunteer duty. The two would end up getting married in May 1945.

His military career helped his acting career

Humphrey Bogart entertaining troops during the Second World War.
Actor Humphrey Bogart entertaining troops during the Second World War. He is standing on a wicker stage and speaks into a microphone, circa 1940. (Photo Credit: Bettmann/ Getty Images)

Without his military experience, Humphrey Bogart may not have reached the same level of success as an actor. During his acting career, he drew on his military experience in many of his films.

Because of his real-life experience at sea, many of his movie scenes felt completely authentic. For example, in Action in the North Atlantic (1943), Bogart played First Officer Joe Rossi, who brought a merchant marine ship safely through a German attack and into Murmansk. At the end of All Through the Night (1942), Bogart’s character prevented a Nazi motorboat filled with explosives from destroying an American battleship. In Across the Pacific (1942), Bogart’s character sailed to Panama on a Japanese ship.

Humphrey Bogart On the set of The African Queen
American actor Humphrey Bogart on the set of The African Queen, 1951. (Photo Credit: Sunset Boulevard/ Getty Images)

Humphrey Bogart won only one Academy Award for his acting career for his portrayal of Charlie Allnut in The African Queen (1951). For this role, Humphrey Bogart once again was able to draw on his real-life Naval experience to make his character’s experience more accurate for the audience. One could certainly argue that Humphrey Bogart would not have been such a successful and impactful actor without his military career.

Humphrey Bogart passed away on January 14, 1957, from esophageal cancer.

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World War 1

Battle of St Eloi Craters: The Relatively Unknown Battle That Devastated the Canadian Corps

Military historians have often overlooked the Battle of St Eloi Craters that occurred during the First World War. Perhaps this lack of interest is due to it being a Canadian offensive, or maybe it’s because it was an insignificant engagement in the grand scheme of things. Whatever the reason, it should be discussed, if only for the complete failure in leadership that dealt a devastating blow for the Canadian Corps.

How did St Eloi get its craters?

Aerial view of St Eloi
Aerial view of St Eloi, March 1916. (Photo Credit: National Library of Scotland / Wikimedia Commons / No Known Copyright Restrictions)

The Battle of St Eloi Craters was fought between March 27 – April 16, 1916.

By the latter half of 1915, the Allies and the Central Powers were using extensive mining as a part of their trench warfare. St Eloi was located approximately three miles south of Ypres, and both the Allies and the Germans spent the majority of the year mining and countermining the town.

By early 1916, 30 British and German mines were in the small confines of the area. On March 27, the British forces detonated six of them, signaling the start of the battle. The explosions were heard all the way to England, collapsed German trenches and wiped out any existing landmarks on the battlefield. Four of the six blew up so close to each other that an impassible lake was formed, spanning 165 feet across and reaching 45 feet in depth.

Fighting within the craters

Three privates with the Northumberland Fusiliers, 3rd Division standing in the middle of a dirt road
Three privates with the Northumberland Fusiliers, 3rd Division during the Battle of St Eloi Craters, March 1916. (Photo Credit: Imperial War Museum)

British soldiers were forced to fight within the craters for the first week of the battle at St Eloi. The explosions had completely disrupted the landscape in No Man’s Land, causing the troops to become confused and allowing the Germans to reoccupy portions of the line.

For one week, the British fought in nightmarish conditions. The weather was horrific; the soldiers dealt with high winds, rain and sleet. They stood or crouched in waist-deep water, unable to sit because of how much had accumulated. On top of this, they also had to fight hand-to-hand combat against the Germans within the craters.

Initially, Canadian troops were supposed to replace the British on the night of April 6. However, the decision was made to have them relieve the exhausted soldiers three days earlier than initially planned, on April 3.

Enter the inexperienced Canadians

Water-filled crater at St Eloi
Battle of St Eloi Craters, 1916. (Photo Credit: George Metcalf Archival Collection / War Museum Canada)

The 2nd Canadian Division had been rushed to the Western Front in September 1915 to join the 1st Division. The two formed the Canadian Corps and were stationed near the Ypres sector. Under the command of Gen. Edwin Alderson, they had yet to see action and were excited to get their first taste of battle.

Since they were rushed into battle, the Canadian Corps had very little time to prepare. With no battle experience, they  only had a very vague idea of where they were, relative to the enemy.

Chaos ensues at the Battle of St Eloi Craters

Members of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers standing together
Machine gun regiment of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers – “The Fighting Fifth” – following the Battle of St Eloi Craters, April 1916. (Photo Credit: Paul Thompson / FPG / Getty Images)

The horrific state of the trenches had an impact on the Canadian Corps. Pvt. Fraser said this on his experience, “When day broke, the sights that met our gaze were so horrible and ghastly that they beggar description. Heads, arms and legs were protruding from the mud at every yard and dear knows how many bodies the earth swallowed.”

Throughout April 4 – 5, the entire Canadian front was intensely bombarded, resulting in many casualties. As a result, battalion commander Lt. Col. I.R. Snider was forced to thin out his frontline to avoid any more deaths However, this made the Canadians more vulnerable to a German infantry assault.
The weather kept aerial reconnaissance to a minimum. This, combined with the enemy artillery barrages, meant the Canadian Corps wasn’t really sure what was happening. There was hardly any communication between the front and rear lines.
On April 6, two German battalions attacked the ruins of the main road. The already confused Canadians lost communication and were pushed back. By the night of April 8, the Canadian leadership had essentially lost control of the situation and no longer knew what craters they held onto and which ones the Germans controlled.
For another two weeks, the Canadians and Germans continued to shell each other. On the night of April 17, the former attempted to fight off another raid by the latter. The pouring rain caused the Canadians’ guns to stop firing – half of the soldiers were stuck in the craters, while the others tried to crawl away, defenseless.
The Battle of St Eloi Craters ended with the German’s gaining control of the battlefield. More than 1,370 Canadians were killed or wounded, along with around 480 German casualties.

Totally incompetent leaders

Painting depicting the Battle of St Eloi Craters
Battle of St Eloi Craters. (Photo Credit: Print Collector / Getty Images)

The breakdown of the Canadian Corps at St Eloi was the result of a lack of communication. This was a constant theme throughout the First World War and wasn’t just isolated to the Battle of St Eloi Craters. In the town, the constant bombardment made it hard for the Canadians to keep telephone wires from being cut, and it was nearly impossible to lay new lines. Similarly, many didn’t have any battle experience, so they were hesitant to stand above the trenches.

However, military leaders did fail to act upon the information they did have. Officers could have been sent to the front to figure out what was happening, and information that was received wasn’t analyzed. Those in charge made no attempt to understand the situation better, and the inexperienced Canadian troops were sent to the frontline effectively blind.
More significantly, the military leaders must be blamed for inserting a new division into the lines at St Eloi. The German’s had the advantage when the Canadians relieved the British and continued to press the inexperienced troops. The newcomers were ill-prepared and -advised by their commanding officers and this resulted in a devastating blow to the Allies.
Senior officer Douglas Haig blamed Edwin Alderson for the crushing blow, and he was replaced by Lt. Gen. Julian Byng as the commander of the Canadian Corps. Today, the craters at St Eloi are used as a recreational fishing hole.