The Lockheed AC-130 is a special operations gunship that can trace its history back to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain. Over its nearly 60 years of service, multiple variations have been developed to support troops across numerous conflicts. The ideal aircraft for nighttime close air support, the AC-130 made significant contributions during the Vietnam War.
Transforming the Douglas C-47 into the AC-47 Spooky
Douglas C-47 Skytrains were cargo planes produced in the thousands and used to transport cargo and paratroopers. What started out as an unarmed cargo plane soon turned into a fully-loaded gunship capable of supporting special operations under fire from enemy attacks.
When the US Air Force began experimenting with side-firing gunships in the 1960s, a C-47 underwent a transformation to become the first prototype, later designated the AC-47 Spooky.
A Douglas AC-47 Spooky on display at the Air Force Armaments Museum in Florida. (Photo Credit: Greg Goebel / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
The AC-47D carried a trio of M134 7.62 mm multibarreled mini-guns and was typically manned by a crew of seven. After some intensive field testing, the aircraft proved to be a powerful shelling tool, firing 4,500 rounds against enemy soldiers. By November 1965, 20 C-47s had been refurbished and brought back into service as AC-47D gunships.
The AC-47D saw its most notable service during the Vietnam War.
The AC-47 didn’t always succeed in combat
Although the AC-47s were proving their value, not everything went in their favor. On March 9, 1966, an AC-47 was sent to help defend the A Shau Special Forces camp, which was under attack by the North Vietnamese. Weather conditions were unfavorable, and the pilot was forced to fly below 400 feet. The North Vietnamese, equipped with .50-caliber machine guns, were able to blow both engines off of the AC-47 during its second pass over the area.
Night attack by a Douglas AC-47D Spooky over Saigon, 1968. This time lapse photo shows the tracer round trajectories. (Photo Credit: USAF / National Museum of the U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The aircraft crashed on the slope of a nearby mountain and the crew, who survived, quickly set up a perimeter. The enemy began to attack and attempted two assaults. While there were two casualties, the survivors were able to fend off the North Vietnamese until they were rescued.
Co-pilot Lt. Delbert Peterson was left behind and not found when Special Forces returned to the area to search for him. He was declared missing in action and, later, deemed killed in action.
Improved technologies lead to the development of the AC-130
By 1967, the Lockheed AC-130 prototype had been selected with the intention of being a direct replacement for the AC-47D. It had the capacity to fly faster, loiter longer and refuel mid-air. The aircraft arrived in South Vietnam later that year, and not longer after the AC-47 was deemed inadequate.
An AC-130A Spectre equipped with two 40 mm cannons, two 20 mm Vulcan cannons and two 7.62 mm miniguns. (Photo Credit: Eric Friedebach / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)
One of the most notable upgrades was the addition of the Black Crow magnetic anomaly detector, which detected minute variations in the Earth’s magnetic field. It was capable of detecting the unshielded ignition coils of Northern Vietnamese trucks hidden under the jungle brush and the hand-held transmitter signals of air controllers on the ground, to help locate targets.
The Lockheed AC-130 has supported special operations for decades
Lockheed AC-130s have supported special operations for nearly 60 years. With six variants, the aircraft has been involved in air interdiction, armed reconnaissance, combat search and rescue, forward air control, intelligence gathering, close air support and surveillance. Modern AC-130s have a top speed of 415 miles per hour, with a range of 3,000 miles.
US Air Force Special Forces Lockheed AC-130 dropping flares mid-flight. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Getty Images)
By performing the “pylon turn,” a flying technique where the aircraft makes a wide circle above the target area, AC-130s are able to produce a steady volume of fire against a target during extended loitering periods. Despite the predictability of the route, enemies often lack the necessary weaponry to effectively take down an AC-130.
For many US Air Force pilots, one of the most deadly places to battle the enemy during the Korean War was MiG Alley. The site of the first large-scale jet-versus-jet air fights, with the North American F-86 Sabre, it saw the communist forces make use of Soviet MiG-15s, which, it turns out, were largely piloted by veterans from the USSR.
The USSR shows support for China and North Korea
Prior to the start of the Korean War, Soviet pilots who had fought in World War II were sent to China to train the country’s newly-formed People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF). Both later unofficially committed support and supplies to North Korea once it began its fight against the South in 1950.
The North Koreans had a number of Soviet MiG-15s on retainer from the Second World War. The USSR supplied additional aircraft, as well. (Photo Credit: aviation-images.com / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
When they commenced the war, the North Koreans flew a small number of Soviet aircraft they’d had on retainer since the Second World War. However, their pilots were inexperienced and, once the UN committed air units to the conflict, they quickly became depleted against the US Air Force’s North American P-51 Mustangs.
The majority of the Soviet pilots were given preliminary training at bases in the Soviet Maritime Military District. Eventually, the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (64th IAK) of the Soviet Air Forces became attached to the PLAAF under the 1st United Air Army.
Soviet MiG-15 jet fighters featured heavily during the Korean War, particularly in MiG Alley. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
On the same day the 64th IAK became attached to the 1st United Air Army, the Soviet pilots flying over North Korea engaged in their first dogfights with UN aircraft. They did well against the P-51s, forcing the US-based pilots to switch to the new F-86 Sabre.
Soviet aid was intended to be a secret
While it had long been an open secret that the Soviet Union had provided pilots to fight alongside the Chinese and North Korean forces, it wasn’t until its archives were opened that the long-denied fact was proven to be true.
In an attempt to hide their identities, Soviet pilots were made to wear civilian clothing or North Korean uniforms. Their fighters were covered in Chinese and North Korean markings, and they were ordered to only speak Korean when communicating over the radio. Soviet government officials also frequently denied their pilots were involved in direct combat in Korea.
MiG-15 under attack by a US Air Force fighter jet. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Despite these precautions, the Soviets were eventually found out. F-86 Sabre pilots reported seeing non-Asian flyers in the cockpits of MiG-15s, and, in March 1951, the 1st Radio Squadron, Mobile (RSM) picked up Russian ground controllers communicating with communist aircraft. Before long, the Soviet pilots were also caught speaking Russian.
The UN forces noticed, as well, that the North Korean and Chinese pilots were much less skilled in their abilities than the Soviets, leading to the latter being nicknamed “Honchos” – Japanese for “Boss.”
What was MiG Alley?
MiG Alley was created out of Soviet Dictator Joseph Stalin‘s fears of having the country’s MiG-15s captured by the UN forces. He was worried about the consequences such an incident would cause and thus ordered his pilots to not fly too far south. As such, they rarely flew south of the Chunchŏn River.
Map showing the location of MiG Alley. (Photo Credit: Triggerhappy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
With the southern border of MiG Alley established, it’s time to look at the north. The primary MiG-15 base was located just across the Yalu River in Antung Province, Manchuria. It was surrounded by additional bases that, too, housed the aircraft and their pilots, and together they formed the “Antung Complex.”
The Soviet forces ensured the bases were equipped with the latest defense technologies. These included searchlights, radar installations, anti-aircraft guns and ground control systems. The bases’ locations also allowed officials to rotate MiG-15 units, which, in theory, would allow them to constantly deploy well-rested pilots and reduce casualties.
North American F-86 Sabre pilots walking through the torii gate at Kimpo (K-18) Air Base. While their history dates back to Japanese Shinto shrines, they became a symbol of the US Air Force during the Korean War. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Having their bases situated on the Chinese side of the border was important to the communist forces, as it was against the rules of engagement for UN pilots to cross the Yalu River and attack. This created a rather tight area for air-to-air combat, making the fighting between pilots particularly dangerous – and difficult.
MiG-15s versus F-86 Sabres
Right off the top, the MiG-15s appeared to be the better aircraft. They carried one 37 mm Nudelman N-37 Cannon and two 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 cannons. While able to inflict damage against UN aircraft, the weapons fired at a relatively slow pace. Issues also arose in 1953, when the majority of the MiG-15s were being flown by pilots from China and North Korea, as opposed to the Soviet Union.
MiG-15 being shot down by a North American F-86 Sabre. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The primary bases for the US Air Force’s F-86 Sabres were at Suwon (K-13) and Kimpo (K-18). The F-86 was America’s modern fighter, equipped with six Browning M3 .50-caliber machine guns that, while able to fire at a high rate, could only cause light damage against the communists’ MiG-15s. The aircraft also wasn’t as agile, couldn’t fly as high or rise as fast as the enemy aircraft, but made up for this with its aerodynamics, radar gunsight and the speeds at which it could dive.
Oftentimes, the dogfights occurred once UN aircraft entered the airspace of MiG Alley. On the Manchurian side of the border, MiG-15 pilots laid in wait and, once they spotted the enemy fighters, swooped down from high altitudes to attack. When they ran into trouble, they flew back to China. While the UN forces were technically prevented from crossing the border, many pilots took advantage of the “hot pursuit” exception to do so and adopted a “code of silence” about their patrols.
North American F-86 Sabres put up a strong fight against the Soviet MiG-15s in Korea. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
Despite having an advantage in MiG Alley, the communist pilots couldn’t compete with the better-trained pilots from the US Air Force. While initially the kill ratio was said to be 10:1, in favor of the UN forces, it was later changed to 8:1.
Numerous air aces came out of MiG Alley
The dogfights in MiG Alley produced a number of air aces throughout the Korean War. The top flyers were on the Soviet side, with Nikolai Vasilyevich Sutyagin claiming the most kills at either 21 or 22, depending on the source. Other notable Soviet pilots were Yevgeny Georgievich Pepelyayev with 19 aircraft downed and Lev Kirillovich Shchukin with 17.
Yevgeny Georgievich Pepelyayev downed 19 aircraft during the Korean War. (Photo Credit: Mil.ru / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 4.0)
On the UN side, the top fighter ace was Capt. Joseph C. McConnell Jr., who downed 16 MiG-15s, including three in one day. He sadly died shortly after returning home in 1954, when the F-86H he was test flying crashed following a control malfunction, which was later attributed to a missing bolt.
The second-highest-scoring ace was also the UN’s first jet-versus-jet ace, Maj. James “Jabby” Jabara. Prior to flying in Korea, he’d flown P-51 Mustangs in Europe during WWII, scoring 1.5 air victories against the Germans. The third highest UN ace of the conflict was Frederick Corbin “Boots” Blesse, who downed nine MiG-15s during his two combat tours in Korea. In total, he completed 35 Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star missions, 67 with the P-51 and 121 missions while flying the F-86.
Capt. Joseph C. McConnell Jr. was the top UN fighter ace of the Korean War. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Over the course of the Korean War, it’s claimed that 30 F-86 pilots were shot down behind enemy lines. Their fates have never been properly established. Those who survived and were later repatriated after the armistice reported being interrogated by Korean, Chinese and Soviet officials, further proving the open secret of the USSR’s involvement in the conflict.
“the man in the iron mask” died in the Bastille in Paris, France. He was buried under “Marchioly,” and his age was “about 45.”
He was a political prisoner during the reign of Louis XIV of France (1643–1715), and he was famous in French history and legend.
The Man in the Iron Mask, etching and mezzotint, 1789. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
There is no historical evidence that the mask was made of anything but black velvet (velours), and only afterward did legend convert its material into iron. According to sources, his captors said to treat him with respect but kill him when he tried to talk about his identity.
The mysterious man was arrested in 1669 or 1670 and held in several French prisons, including the Bastille and the Fortress of Pignerol (modern Pinerolo, Italy).
According to recent research, his name might have been “Eustache Dauger,” but this has not been proven.
The man’s identity in the mask was already a mystery before his death. Many different suggestions have been proposed. However, only two prisoners were in custody during the same time as the “man in the iron mask”: Ercole Matthiole and Eustache Dauger.
Matthiole was an Italian count who was abducted and jailed after he tried to double-cross Louis XIV during political negotiations in the late-1670s. He was a longtime prisoner, and his name is similar to “Marchioly.”
It is generally agreed, however, that Matthioli died in the Îles Sainte-Marguerite in April 1694. The second, even more convincing candidate was Eustache Dauger, a valet, who was arrested on his orders for an unknown reason near Dunkirk in July 1669.
Based on the correspondence of Louis XIV’s minister Louvois, jailers were instructed to restrict Dauger’s contact with others and to “threaten him with death if he speaks one word except about his actual needs.”
Dauger was frequently transported from one prison to another; for some reason, the precaution of the mask was necessary to keep absolute secrecy regarding this person.
It is still unclear who the mysterious man was and if his name was a pseudonym; it was suggested that he was a failed assassin, the twin brother of Louis XIV, and a man involved in a political scandal.
The story of Alwilda sounds more like a fairytale, and truth to be told; it’s difficult to determine whether the account is based on historical events or is just a beautiful and romantic legend.
Left: Awilda as depicted in The Pirates Own Book, published in 1837. Credit: Public Domain – Right: Pirate ships. Credit: Public Domain
Alwilda was said to be the daughter of Synardus, a 5th-century Scandinavian king. According to some sources, Synardus was king of Gotland, Sweden.
Her father was overprotective and decided to lock his young and beautiful daughter in a tower. It was done to keep young men away from her. To make it extremely difficult to get near Alwilda, her father ordered dangerous snakes around the building. Admirers had to climb the tower and defeat the poisonous snakes that guarded her, but no one, except the Prince of Denmark, succeeded.
Prince Alf of Denmark asked the king if he could marry his daughter. King Synardus agreed and said he would arrange a marriage between Alwilda and the Prince Alf of Denmark.
However, Alwilda didn’t like the idea of marrying an unknown prince.
When Prince Alf entered her room, he discovered Alwilda was gone. Her mother had helped her to escape. To avoid her impending marriage, Alwilda fled and joined her female friends. These young women dressed as men and were sailors. Together, Alwilda and her female pirates hijacked a ship. One day during their journeys, they encountered a ship that had lost its captain. Because of her skills, the pirates unanimously elected Alwilda as their captain. Dressed as a man, Alwilda became a successful and feared pirate, but it seems she could not escape her fate.
News about her piracy reached, and the King of Denmark sent his son and a navy ship to battle with the troublesome pirates.
On Viking Expeditions of Highborn Maids: Two female warriors, of the royal family, according to the crowns on their heads, are participating in a sea battle. From Olaus Magnus’ A Description of the Northern Peoples from 1555. Credit: Public Domain
As Charles Ellms writes in The Pirates Own Book, “by this reinforcement, she became so formidable, that Prince Alf was dispatched to engage her. She sustained his attacks with great courage and talent. Still, during a severe action in the Gulf of Finland, Alf boarded her vessel and, having killed the greatest part of her crew, seized the captain, namely herself, whom nevertheless he knew not because she had a casque which covered her visage.
The prince was agreeably surprised, on removing the helmet, to recognize his beloved Alwilda, and it seems that his valor had now recommended him to the fair princess, for he persuaded her to accept his hand, married her on board, and then led her to partake of his wealth, and share his throne.” 1
Other versions of the story inform that after Alwilda revealed her identity, she and the prince married on the ship’s deck. Later, they went to the shore and reigned as king and queen of Denmark.
Whether Alwilda was a real historical person is challenging to determine due to the lack of credible ancient accounts. Most historians consider the story of Alwilda a legend. There may have been a Scandinavian princess who escaped from a tower and became a fierce pirate. After all, historians know today that there were female Vikingwarriors.
In Norse mythology, there are many stories about female warriors called shield-maidens.
Historians have debated whether these powerful women existed for years, and now we have the answer. Archaeologists have found evidence that female fighters might have roots in historical events.
It can be added that Alwilda’s story seems to have been known in other European countries. ‘Torquato Tasso, for example, an Italian poet of the 16th century, wrote a play named Il Re Torrismondo’. 2
In this tragedy the story of Alwilda is slightly different. She must marry Germondo, the king of Sweden, but she falls in love with Torrismondo. Not feeling she has any options, Alwilda commits suicide to not choose between love and honor.
Epic of Gilgamesh’ is not the first literary source that mentions the name ‘Gilgamesh,’ who was the fifth ruler of the dynasty of Uruk and a demigod with superhuman strength that helped him to build the defensive walls of Uruk
According to the Sumerian King List, he ruled the city of Uruk for 126 years.
One old legend, “Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish’ mentions Gilgamesh – long before the famous epic. The legend is a short Sumerian story devoted to an armed confrontation between the two contemporary kings, Gilgamesh of Uruk and Agga of Kish (also referred to as Akka of Kish).
This short Sumerian story – most probably based on one of the many historical wars between the city-states of Sumer – tells how Gilgamesh defeated the neighboring city of Kish, which, according to the Sumerian King List, was the first city to have kings following the deluge.
War began when Agga, king of Kish, sent envoys to Uruk demanding submission.
Gilgamesh met with Uruk’s elders to discuss the response.
Iraq. Kish. (Tel-Uhaimir). The ruling city immediately after the deluge. The ancient ruins showing extensive remains. Matson Collection – Library of Congress Catalog – Original url
Gilgamesh was ready to resist, having an assembly of the Uruk’s fighting men on his side. The city elders, however, preferred surrender as the city of Kish was powerful, and so was its ruler, Agga, the son of Enmebaragesi, a historical king, according to the earliest cuneiform inscription bearing the name of ‘Enmebaragesi of Kish.’
The city elders, however, preferred surrender as the city of Kish was powerful. It so was its ruler, Agga, the son of Enmebaragesi, a historical king, according to the earliest cuneiform inscription bearing the name of ‘Enmebaragesi of Kish.’
Enmebaragesi is known from several inscriptions found on fragments of vases of his own time, as well as from later traditions; one inscription asserts that he “despoiled the weapons of the land of Elam…”
He was the next-to-last ruler of the first dynasty of Kish. His son, Agga, was the dynasty’s last king, owing to his defeat by Gilgamesh, according to the Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish.
Agga arrived with his large army and besieged Uruk, but surprisingly, Gilgamesh was not particularly frightened. Instead, he told his right-hand, trusted man, Enkidu, to gather weapons to demonstrate the strength that would startle and confuse the mighty Agga.
Also, Birhurture, who was Gilgamesh’s bodyguard and a trusted servant, was sent to the enemy’s camp to sow doubt and fear.
At some point, Gilgamesh’s majestic figure appeared on the city’s walls; the gates were thrown open, and Uruk, all warriors commanded by Enkidu, emerged in full battle formation to fight against King Agga of Kish.
Agga was taken captive, but Gilgamesh spared Agga’s life. The great king of Uruk had a debt of honor to the aggressor; he once found refuge in Kish, and Agga saved his life.
For many years, the kings of Babylon took the title ‘King of Kish’ after the legendary days of Kish’s independence.
Written by – A. Sutherland – AncientPages.com Senior Staff Writer
The enduring mysteries of ancient Egypt keep fascinating archaeologists, historians, and the public alike.
The Land of the Pharaohs refuses to give up its secrets, and despite countless magnificent archaeological finds, we tend to encounter riddles all over Egypt. Buried beneath the sands lie the tremendous treasure of one of the most powerful ancient civilizations of all time, the ancient Egyptians.
Dashur pyramid. Credit: Adobe Stock – Maria Vazquez
Sometimes archaeologists arrive too late at the site, leaving us with ancient mysteries that may never be solved. That is the beauty but tragedy of ancient Egyptian history. Magnificent ancient tombs have long been looted, and we may never know to whom the burial places belonged.
Located about 15 miles south of Cario, the Dashur complex is famous for its incredible structures constructed during the era of the Old Kingdom. Dashur complex consists of pyramids, mortuary temples, and other unexplored buildings.
Archaeologists have long argued that sites such as Dashur, Giza, Lisht, Meidum, and Saqqara are as significant as archaeological findings.
The site where the previously unknown pyramid was discovered. Credit: Smithsonian Channel
It “would confirm or adjust the entire time frame of the extraordinary developmental phase of Egyptian civilization that saw the biggest pyramids built, the nomes (administrative districts) organized, and the hinterlands internally colonized – that is, the first consolidation of the Egyptian nation-state. ” 1
In addition to this information, the results of such excavation projects would naturally fill in the historical gaps and provide a more comprehensive picture of the lives and deaths of pharaohs and ordinary people in ancient Egypt.
Many ancient Egyptian pyramids have been destroyed, but still, several are hidden beneath the sands awaiting scientific exploration. One such intriguing ancient structure is the newly-discovered pyramid in Dashur, Dahshur, a previously inaccessible site relatively unknown to the public. Dashur is an ancient cemetery known mainly for several pyramids, two of which are among the oldest, largest, and best-preserved in Egypt, built from 2613–2589 BC. Two of the Dahshur Pyramids, the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid, were constructed during the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu (2613-2589 BC).
The Bent Pyramid was the first attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid, but it was not a successful achievement, and Sneferu decided to build another called the Red Pyramid.
Inside the little-known Dashur pyramid. Credit: Smithsonian Channel
Several other pyramids of the 13th Dynasty were built at Dahshur, but many are covered by sand, almost impossible to detect.
In 2017, Dr. Chris Naunton, President of the International Association of Egyptologists, traveled to Dashur together with the crew of the Smithsonian Channel and documented the exciting findings of one particular pyramid.
What the team discovered is a bit like an ancient detective story. Local archaeologists had found heavy blocks of finely cut limestone buried deep in the sand. Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquity was informed about the discovery, and archaeologists were sent to the site to excavate.
The burial chamber was sealed but some had been inside and looted. Credit: Smithsonian Channel
Having worked long and hard, archaeologists finally uncovered a previously unknown pyramid. Still, the most exciting part was the discovery of a secret passage that led from the pyramid’s entrance to an underground complex at the very heart of the pyramid. The heavy and huge limestone blocks protected the chamber, ensuring no one could pass easily and explore whatever was hidden inside the mysterious ancient pyramid.
The obstacles did not discourage archeologists, who successfully managed to enter the pyramid’s interior after some days of work. Everything seemed to indicate the unknown pyramid at Dashur contained ancient treasures and most likely a mummy.
Credit: Smithsonian Channel
When scientists found themselves inside the burial chamber, they were astounded to see someone had visited this ancient place long before them. The Dashur pyramid had been robbed about 4,000 years ago. Looting pyramids in the past was quite common, and the Dashur pyramid was one of many robbery victims.
One can understand Dr. Naunton’s disappointment when he glanced into the empty burial chamber, but this discovery is intriguing and raises specific questions.
“There are two questions here that we need to start trying to answer. One is who was buried here? Who was this pyramid built for? And then secondly, how is it that an apparently completely sealed, unbreached burial chamber comes to have been disturbed?” Dr. Nauton says.
Was a mummy stolen from the Dashur pyramid? Maybe or maybe not. How did looters get past the untouched seal? Did the original ancient builders plunder the burial chamber before they sealed it? These are some of the many questions this ancient Egyptian mystery pose.
Aztec and Maya civilizations are household names – but it’s the Olmecs who are the ‘mother culture’ of ancient Mesoamerica.
Jade Olmec warriors mask from Tabasco (Mexico). Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels (Belgium). Credit: Michel Wal – CC BY-SA 3.0s
An extremely important 1-ton sculpture, sometimes referred to by archaeologists as an “Earth Monster” or Monument 9, was repatriated to Mexico from a private collection in Colorado in May 2023, according to an announcement from Mexico’s Consul General in New York . The monument features the head of a front-facing creature with a gaping mouth: a supernatural being that represented the living, animate earth to an ancient culture in Central America and Mexico.
This sculpture was reportedly found at the base of a hill at Chalcatzingo, an archaeological site some 80 miles (130 kilometers) south of Mexico City, and dates to roughly 600 B.C. Chalcatzingo is closely related to Olmec culture, one of the earliest in ancient Mesoamerica.
I am an archaeologist specializing in Mesoamerica: an area that encompassed present-day southern Mexico, parts of Costa Rica and all of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua. I have visited Chalcatzingo many times while researching the development of this rich cultural region.
Elaborate art
The Olmec heartland was in what are now the Mexican states of Tabasco and southern Veracruz, along the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Much of their influence was based on economic wealth from corn.
Of Olmec art that has survived the centuries, their carved heads are particularly striking and well known. By 1000 B.C., Olmec sculptors at San Lorenzo, Mexico, had fashioned no fewer than 10 colossal heads, all over 6 feet high. Archaeologists believe these are individualized portraits of rulers, each with their own specific headdress: depictions of specific people, which is quite rare in New World art.
The Olmecs were also masters in the carving of jade. I was involved in locating the original Olmec and Maya jadeite sources in highland eastern Guatemala, found in stone outcrops often located about 6,000 feet above sea level.
Colorado Lt. Gov. Dianne Primavera, left, is shown a photograph of Monument 9 before it was returned to Mexico.AP Photo/David Zalubowski
Artisans beginning around 900 B.C. carved life-size jade masks that almost look like molded plastic, but which must have been the result of a laborious process to grind and polish this extremely hard, dense stone.
Sacred system
All Olmec sculpture was created for a purpose, whether it be religious or political. In the case of Monument 9, it clearly pertains to the Earth, which in Mesoamerica was considered a sacred, living being.
The Olmecs existed at a time when maize agriculture had first developed, which stabilized and increased their economy – a transformative shift in the development of Mesoamerican civilization.
During this period, they developed an elaborate religious system that emphasized the sacredness of corn and rain, including a maize god. Quite frequently, this deity is depicted with an ear of corn emerging out of the center of his cleft head. In other cases, the head is sharply turned back, invoking growing corn. This form appears in Teopantecuantitlán, an archaeological site in highland Mexico, where there is a masonry court with four images of the Olmec maize god.
A cup showing the Olmec maize god as growing corn.Credit: The Art Institute of Chicago – Public Domain
As a tall grass, corn needs a great deal of water to survive the summer, making rain all-important. Trying to please the rain god in return for rain was a vital part of Olmec religion.
The Olmec spread similar practices and beliefs across ancient Mexico and Guatemala, probably in part to engage other peoples more directly with their economic trade network. Rather than an empire of domination, the Olmec were a culture focused on agricultural abundance and wealth.
Sacred mountains were of extreme importance as well, as can be seen at Chalcatzingo and at a hill called Cerro El Manatí, located very close to the site at San Lorenzo. At this hill, there is a perennial spring with sweet freshwater that fills a pool below at the base. In this pool, the Olmec offered a huge amount of valued material, including rubber balls for ritual sport, as well as many jadeite axes. According to two scholars of Mesoamerica, Ponciano Ortiz and Mari´a del Carmen Rodri´guez, this is the first clear example of a sacred mountain of abundance, which persists in Mesoamerican belief and ritual to this day.
Earth Monster’s home
Far to the west of the Olmec heartland, in the Mexican state of Morelos, is Cerro Chalcatzingo, the site where the Earth Monster monument originated. Here, the Olmec focus on the mountain as a provider of wealth and sustenance, portrayed in several sculptures as a cave.
Even before Olmec times, the idea of fertile caves was shown as a four-lobed motif resembling a flower – an important symbol that continued even into the 16th century with the Aztec.
The most famous Olmec bedrock carving at Chalcatzingo is called Monument 1 and features a woman in profile – probably a goddess – seated within the cave.
An Olmec structure at the archaeological site in Chalcatzingo.Ihiroalfonso/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA
This carving is directly above where rainwater pours down from the top of the mountain. Below are what archaeologists call “cupules”: cuplike holes carved in bedrock directly below to receive this water, and collected by priests and pilgrims. On the opposite side of the hill is another rock carving featuring the same cave in profile, facing Monument 1.
Sadly, Monument 9, which was recently returned to Mexico, was looted from the site, so its original context is unknown. In archaeology, it is important to understand not only when an object was made and who created it, but where it was placed. Nonetheless, Monument 9 portrays the same cave as two other sculptures at the site, which are carved directly into the rock surface of the mountain.
Monument 9 is significant, as it denotes the central Earth Monster cave, and unlike the other two Olmec carvings, it is face-on rather than rendered in profile. It probably was placed against a mound with its open mouth leading to a chamber inside, symbolizing a portal to the underworld.
That this highly sacred object is back in Mexico is of utmost importance for Indigenous Mexicans. To its creators, Monument 9 likely represented the source of life and abundance, as well as sacred rituals associated with them – ideas and practices that pervaded subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations.
Written by Karl Taube, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Riverside.
In northern Louisiana, North America, there is a very interesting and mysterious ancient site known as Watson Brake. This ancient site challenges our knowledge about North American history as the mounds are some of the earliest known remnants of human construction in the New World.
Mounds At Watson Brake Were Raised By Complex Ancient Society
Located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe, Watson Brake consists of 11 ancient mounds that measure from three to 25 feet in height.
Some sections of the oval-shaped earth berm probably have been eroded by rains and floods during the past 5,000 years. Credit: Northeastern State University
The construction of the mounds started about 5,400 years ago, predating other similar public architecture at Indian sites by nearly 2,000 years. This suggests the region was inhabited by a pre-agriculture, pre-ceramic hunting society that was much more socially complex than previously thought.
What we understand about the Mound Builders is changing due to research in the last decade.
What Was the Purpose Of The Mounds?
According to many archaeologists, the purpose of the mounds is unknown. Since no human remains or ceremonial objects have been found, perhaps the mounds were not used for burial or religious purposes.
Artist’s conception of Watson Brake. Credit: Herb Roe – CC BY-SA 4.0
On the other hand, the area enclosed by the mounds was kept clean of debris, suggesting its use as a ritual space. The reasons why such elaborate activities first occurred here remain elusive. Another possibility is that the mounds were originally built to protect Native Americans from floods.h
Yet, it seems logical to assume our ancestors must have had a reason for building these mounds. The surfaces of the ridges and mounds show little evidence of occupation, leading archaeologists to believe that Watson Brake was occupied primarily before and during the building of the mounds.
William F. Romain, Ph.D., who runs the Ancient Earthworks Project, believes Watson Brake is the oldest solstice-aligned earthwork complex in the Americas.
Credit: Ancient Earthworks Project
The ancient mounds are very difficult to access because half of the site is on private property, making it very restricted. The Archaeological Conservancy purchased the other half of the site in 1996.
In 2014, William F. Romain was finally given permission to visit the site. He invited Dick Shiels, Director of the Newark Earthworks Center, and Bill Monaghan, Associate Director of the Glenn Black Laboratory, to accompany him. Using LIDAR technology, William F. Romain discovered Watson Brake was indeed an important archaeoastronomical site that our ancestors used for sky-watching.
The theory that Watson Brake was an ancient astronomical site is not far-fetched. Watson Brake is just like Poverty Point, located in Louisiana.
Watson Brake, Louisiana Credit: VR Image by Richard Thornton
Poverty Point is still a place that remains a prehistoric mystery. The massive earthworks at Poverty Point near Epps were long considered the beginning of extensive mound construction. It has been suggested that the Poverty Point octagon was the world’s largest ancient solstice marker.
Researchers now have reason to believe that mound construction was widespread by 3000 BC in northern and southern Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida based on numerous discoveries.
Were the Watson Brake mounds and massive earthworks at Poverty Point built by the same culture?
Some scientists think the ancient mounds at Watson Brake might have been raised without a purpose.
Poverty Point Octagon. Credit: Steven Patricia
“I know it sounds awfully Zen-like, but maybe the answer is that building them was the purpose, ‘Dr. Bruce D. Smith, an archeologist and specialist in early American agriculture at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, said.
Tristam Kidder, associate professor of anthropology at Tulane University, said the archaeological sites found along the Ouachita River are typical of those found elsewhere in the southeastern United States and unique. They are unique in that they are older, but the earlier sites are more or less similar to the rest of the southeast in general characteristics, Kidder said.
It is challenging to say anything with certainty about Watson Brake. Few archaeological excavations have been conducted at the site, and the full extent of the first earthworks is not yet known.
Watson Brake’s earthworks testify to the complexity of an ancient culture that remains largely a mystery.
Archaeologists excavating site Stöð on Stöðvarfjörður in East Iceland have found a small stone carved with a Viking Ship. This little find may be a big archaeological discovery as it seems this is the oldest picture ever found in Iceland.
The stone was discovered inside a longhouse that is believed to predate the permanent settlement of the island.
A small sandstone with a carved Viking ship may be the oldest picture ever found in Icleand. Credit: Facebook – The Landnámsskáli group in Stöð
“Bjarni F. Einarsson, the archaeologist leading the excavation, says that the stone was found in the wall of the older cabin. Such carvings of ships are quite common in the Nordic countries, carved in bone, wood, or stone. This is the first drawing of a ship that he knows of that has been found in Iceland and must be the oldest drawing in the country,” RÚV reports.
Archaeologists have been excavating at Stöð since 2015, and during this time, they have found a large number of intriguing artifacts and relics. In recent years, the focus has been on investigating the settlement-era longhouse.
“The longhouse is among the largest found in Iceland, 31.4m [103ft] long. In Scandinavia, only chieftains’ farms had longhouses larger than 28m [92ft]. It is also the richest longhouse ever excavated in Iceland. We have found 92 beads and 29 silver objects, including Roman and Middle Eastern coins,” Bjarni F. Einarsson told Iceland Review.
“What makes the site still more significant is that archaeologists discovered an even older longhouse underneath the settlement-era longhouse, estimated to date back to around 800 AD, some 75 years before the permanent settlement of Iceland. The most striking feature of the older structure is the conspicuous absence of the bones of domesticated animals,” the Icelandic Review reports.
One of the longhouses found at the site. Credit: Bjarni Einarsson
“My theory is that the older longhouse was a seasonal hunting camp, operated by a Norwegian chief who outfitted voyages to Iceland to gather valuables and bring them back across the sea to Norway,” Bjarni told Iceland Review. One of these valuables may have been walrus ivory: in 2019, DNA analyses and radiocarbon dating confirmed that Iceland was previously inhabited by a North Atlantic subspecies of walrus, now extinct.
An interesting subject is that Vikings often burned and buried their longhouses.
Architecture takes on special importance as a collective expression of the organization and mindset of a culture, and people had a special relationship to their houses.
Marianne Hem Eriksen, a postdoc at the Department of Archaeology, Conservation, and History at the University of Oslo has studied the custom of how Vikings burned and buried their iron Age longhouses.
According to Eriksen, Vikings saw a link between the human body and the house. This suggested that the house borrowed many features from the human body. It’s very possible that Vikings believe the house had some kind of essence, some kind of soul, and this was the reason why they wanted to give their house a proper burial.
Of course, not all longhouses were buried or burned. The fact some survived gives archaeologists a better opportunity to find artifacts and relics.
A large area around Stöð has been investigated by archaeologists who found traces of unknown ancient structures and boat burial sites. Much about this Icelandic settlement is still unknown, but based on the discovery of beads, coins, and silver, it would seem this was a trading place where wealthy people met and lived. More excavations will provide answers about the settlement.
Written by Jan Bartek – AncientPages.com Staff Writer
Nothing could stop Johnny Appleseed from wandering the countryside, planting apple seeds in the 1800s. His dream was to produce so many apples that no one had to be hungry. This eccentric man, who was remarkable in many ways, is today remembered as a beloved American folk hero. He was the one who planted and supplied apple trees to much of the United States of America.
There are so many legends about Johnny Appleseed that it’s easy to forget who the real man was.
Johnny Appleseed Was A Real Historical Person
Johnny Appleseed, whose name was John Chapman from the beginning, was born in Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1774.
John started to travel alone in his twenties, and that’s how he spent most of his life. He was America’s first organic orchard man, and he was always welcomed by settlers and Native Americans, who treated him as a wandering shaman. He was well-known for his spirituality and pacifism, and he seemed to be as much at home with the red men of the forest as with his own race. John learned how to survive in the woods with few tools and food. There are many legends about his unusual physical prowess, toughness, and endurance.
Locals remember him as a person who could walk many miles on ice on bare feet in winter. One day a man gave Johnny Appleseed shoes because it was so cold. The next day, he was walking barefoot again. When asked what happened to his shoes, he replied he had given them to someone in greater need than him.
Credit: bestapples.com
“He is reported to have lived one whole winter on “butternuts.” He is also said to have floated many miles down French Creek “on a cake of ice.” Paddling his canoe down the Allegheny River when there was much ice on the stream, he pulled his craft onto a block of ice, so the story goes, lay down inside the canoe and went to sleep. He was a hundred miles below his intended destination when he woke up.
The image of him sleeping in the canoe on the floating ice suggests his confidence and lack of hurry or concern about reaching his destination. He was at home and at ease with his wandering, dreamy and confident of his destiny,” Robert Morgan writes in the book Lions of the West.
Even during the War of 1812, conflict was fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies. John wandered across the country, carrying a leather bag filled with apple seeds. That’s how he got his nickname – the “apple seed man.” Later he became known as Johnny Appleseed. He often quoted Biblical scriptures and said God protected his mission and him. He was also a devoted follower of Emanuel Swedenborg.
He visited several settlements, and children, women, and men loved him. His appearance gave the impression that he was poor, but it’s not true. He did earn money by selling his apple trees, but he often preferred to trade food or clothing rather than collect money for his trees. To him, it was more important that a settler planted an apple tree than pay him for it.
Drawing of Jonathan Chapman, aka Johnny Appleseed. H. S. Knapp – A History of the Pioneer and Modern Times of Ashland County. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. (1862). Credit: Public Domain
He lived among many Indian tribes and learned their languages. He spent his time in nature and never killed any animals for survival. There was no need, he said, because nature provided him with the necessary food. He was famous for his ascetic diet, and he was only sick once in his life.
Johnny Appleseed died of pneumonia at the age of seventy. Different dates are listed for his death, but most likely, he passed away in March 1845.
He had spent over 50 years walking across the United States planting apple trees. This remarkable man introduced apple trees to large parts of Pennsylvania, Ontario, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and the northern counties of present-day West Virginia. One can easily say that Johnny Appleseed had lived his dream.
Johnny Appleseed may be gone, but he is certainly not forgotten. According to Howard Means, author of Johnny Appleseed: The Man, the Myth, the American Story, “no American folk hero has been more widely and diversely celebrated than Johnny Appleseed.”
Many movies and books have been produced in honor of this exceptional man. Children love to hear about his adventures, and so do adults. He is an American legend and is celebrated as a national hero.
