The Douglas A-4 Skyhawk has a long and impressive history that spans over more than half a century. Developed for the US Navy and Marine Corps, it’s been adopted by Air Forces around the world and continues to be a beast in the sky. With numerous variations of the aircraft, there’s an A-4 Skyhawk to suit everyone’s needs. It’s versatility, speed and maneuverability made it a popular aircraft at a very reasonable price.
Ed Heinemann came up with the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk’s first design
In the 1950s, the cost and weight of combat aircraft were continually increasing. At the same time, there was a need for the US military to replace the aging, piston-engine Douglas AD (A-1) Skyraider. Originally, the Douglas Aircraft Company intended to replace it with another piston-engine aircraft, but production on a small, lightweight plane – then known as the A4D-1 Skyhawk – was already underway, and it seemed too good to pass up as a worthy successor.
Ed Heinemann standing beside Lt. Cmdr. Jerry Haggerty in front of the new Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, 1954. (Photo Credit: Los Angeles Examiner / USC Libraries / CORBIS / Getty Images)
Ed Heinemann, the chief designer of the A-4 Skyhawk, began designing the aircraft in the early 1950s, and the first iteration saw its first flight in 1956. Heinemann had previously read a study that described how, for every 100 pound weight reduction, the takeoff run would decrease by eight feet, the combat radius would increase by 22 miles and the climb-rate would climb by 18 feet per minute. He applied this knowledge to the A-4, making sure to decrease its weight as much as possible.
Production begins on the new aircraft
Heinemann and his team were able to make the A-4 Skyhawk lightweight, without compromising the features necessary to make it an effective military aircraft. The design came in at half of the maximum weight of the US Navy requirement and did so through a number of new innovations.
The addition of a delta wing not only avoided the requirement that the wings fold, but also shaved off 200 pounds from the total weight. The fuel tank was designed to be more compact, with a fuselage tank of 240 gallons and a wing tank of 520 gallons. These were only two of the many innovations applied to help lighten the A-4 Skyhawk, without compromising its effectiveness.
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. (Photo Credit: wallycacsabre / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)
With these adjustments, the A-4 Skyhawk was given the nicknames “Bantam Bomber,” “Scooter,” “Tinker Toy Bomber,” “Heinemann’s Hot-Rod” and “Kiddiecar.” The first 500 were delivered for a price tag of $860,000 per unit – a whopping 14 percent lower than the original target price. Call that a steal!
Skyhawk models, A-4A to A-4C
The A-4 Skyhawk had many variations, each one derived from its predecessor, but with upgraded or slightly-tuned features. One hundred and sixty-five began production and were declared operational in the mid-1950s. The aircraft was promising and only experienced minor issues during testing, all of which were easily fixed, and deliveries began in late-1956.
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. (Photo Credit: wallycacsabre / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)
Even with the first A-4 Skyhawks being delivered, the next variation was already being developed. The A-4B boasted many improvements. It had a new engine and hydraulics system, as well as air-to-air refuelling capabilities. This variant proved to be a step up from the previous, and its increased efficiency reflected in its production numbers. Five hundred and forty-two Skyhawk A-4Bs were produced, almost four times more than the original aircraft.
Interest in the A-4 Skyhawk continued to increase; there just seemed to be more and more room for improvement. Development of the A-4C variant quickly began, and deliveries were being made by 1960. The A-4C Skyhawk included avionic changes, a low-altitude bombing system, an all-altitude reference system and an automatic flight control system. As well, the aircraft was now all-weather. The new specs of the A-4C led to it being the most produced variant of all the Skyhawks, with 638 built.
Douglas A-4E Skyhawk
By 1961, A-4 Skyhawk deliveries had reached 1,000 units. Originally designed with the idea of nuclear battles in mind, the first couple of aircraft were intentionally made to house weapons and defenses that would combat nuclear threats. By the beginning of the 1960s, this became less of an immediate problem, and the need arose for aircraft that could house conventional weapons for non-nuclear missions.
Douglas A-4 Skyhawk at the Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth Air Show, 2016. (Photo Credit: Balon Greyjoy / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
The A-4E Skyhawk was made for that exact purpose. Like the other variants, it was adapted from the basic A-4 design, but could deliver conventional munitions and had room for a two-person crew, instead of a solo pilot. To make this version of the aircraft possible, it was developed with an extra pair of underwing weapons hard-points, located underneath each outer wing, allowing it to carry a wider variety of weapons and fuel options.
The nose of the A-4E Skyhawk was also lengthened by 14 inches, to allow for a navigation computer. The aircraft also saw the addition of Doppler radar, a radio altimeter and improved bombing systems, making it an obvious choice for the Navy to use as an advanced trainer.
In total, just under 500 A-4E Skyhawks were built. By the time the light attack aircraft stopped being produced in 1979, Douglas Aircraft Company has built 2,960 units.
Use of the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk in Vietnam
A-4 Skyhawks were influential aircraft for the American effort during the Vietnam War. Ground forces were in desperate need for close air support, and the A-4 provided that vital aid. Each aircraft was armed with two 20mm cannons and could carry additional weapons in external pods. They also had the smallest possible airframe, which made them extremely easy to transport on aircraft carriers, as well as making them both fast and maneuverable.
US Navy Douglas A-4 Skyhawk drops rockets and bombs on a Viet Cong stronghold in South Vietnam, 1966. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The A-4 had an impressive record during the war, carrying out some of the first US airstrikes and reportedly dropping the last US bombs on Vietnam. It had accuracy in hitting select targets and participated in more combat missions than any other naval aircraft. It fought in both North and South Vietnam, and only 195 carrier-based A-4s fell to the Vietnamese during the conflict.
International use of the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
The success of the A-4 Skyhawk was seen in conflicts beyond the Vietnam War. Argentina became the first foreign purchaser of the aircraft, and by the outbreak of the Falklands War, the country’s Air Force had purchased 130, refurbished by Lockheed Service Co. Forty-eight Skyhawks were deployed, of which only 19 were lost by the war’s close on June 14, 1982.
Israeli Air Force Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. (Photo Credit: Nehemia Gershuni-Aylho / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
Israel was the largest purchaser and operator of the A-4 Skyhawk outside of the US. The Israel Defence Force and Air Force first requested the aircraft in 1964 and signed a contract with the US that allowed for more detailed inspections of their nuclear research facilities, as well as the promise that the A-4s would not be equipped with nuclear weapons, in exchange for more of the planes.
By 1976, it’s believed Israel had acquired 321 new and used A-4 Skyhawks. By the 1990s, that number had risen to around 355.
The Lockheed Martin FB-22 Strike Raptor was going to be an innovative and new stealth bomber. Not only that, it had the promise of being cost-effective, as its design was derived from the F-22 Raptor. Its development was projected to cost roughly 75 percent less than that of developing a new bomber from scratch.
It sounds too good to be true – and it was. The FB-22 Strike Raptor never made it past conceptualization. The saddest part is that, if it had made it to production, it could have been the stealthiest bomber to have ever entered operational service.
Was there a need for a supersonic stealth bomber?
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptors assigned to the 1st Fighter Wing. (Photo credit: U.S. Air Force / Tech. Sgt. Ben Bloker / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Following the 9/11 attacks, the US military made an effort to overhaul, innovate, and improve weapons and defense technologies. This phase of technological focus was centered on counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency weapons, and any newly-developed equipment that had the potential to be effective was given at least a preliminary design contract. This included military vehicles and aircraft.
In addition, other technologies were also being developed, and weapons like surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) owned by guerrilla groups were getting smaller. The introduction of a new stealth bomber would help identify and attack these tiny, dangerous technologies.
The US Air Force had been dreaming of a supersonic bomber with the same stealth abilities as the standard F-22 Raptor. The advantage of such an aircraft would be the increased range and payload, as well as fittings for a second crew member. The FB-22 Strike Raptor was the compact bomber the service wanted to cause devastation to enemy positions.
Similarities between the F-22 Raptor and the FB-22 Strike Raptor
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor practicing test maneuvers above the Mojave Desert. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Judson Broehme / Getty Images)
The airframe of the FB-22 Strike Raptor would follow the same basic structure as the F-22 Raptor. It would sport a lot of the same features, as well. Up to 80 percent of its avionics, sensors and sub-systems were borrowed from the F-22, with changes focused on the fuselage and wings.
The use of the F-22’s basic design proved to be slightly problematic, as it limited the possibility for effective ground strikes. The F-22 had both limited range and payload capacity, and that just wouldn’t work for the new stealth bomber. As well, the F-22’s Pratt Whitney F119-PW-100 engine would need to be replaced with the F135, used by the F-35 Lightning II.
The FB-22 Strike Raptor takes on a different shape
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor performing a fly-by during an airshow. (Photo Credit: ANDREW CABALLERO-REYNOLDS / AFP / Getty Images)
Lockheed Martin intended to lengthen and widen the fuselage, but found doing so came at a 25-30 percent increase in cost, weight and materials. As such, it was kept the same and the wings given an elongated delta shape that increased the aircraft’s maximum range to approximately 1,596 miles. The wings would have also had the capability to carry up to thirty-five 250-pound GBU-39 small diameter precision-guided bombs.
The FB-22 Strike Raptor would have been able to carry up to 5,000 pounds of bombs, thanks to the improved delta-wing design, and with weapons stored internally, its maximum payload would have been 15,000 pounds. While it would have significantly reduced the bomber’s stealth capability, the FB-22 Strike Raptor would have also been capable of carrying up to 30,000 pounds of weapons mounted on its wings.
The stealth bomber gets scrapped
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor from Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Staff Sgt. Austin M. May / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Before it could make it out of the concept phase, the FB-22 Strike Raptor was found to have more drawbacks than originally thought. The changes made to the airframe caused it to have significantly less maneuverability than the F-22 Raptor, which meant that, in the chance it got caught in a dogfight, the odds were likely never going to be in its favor. Against an opponent like the Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum or the Sukhoi Su-27, it would be done for.
It also couldn’t make it past Mach 1.92 because the thrust vectoring technology of the F-22 was cut from the FB-22’s design. As well, the question of how much these stealth bombers would cost was a major area of concern, and production was capped off at a little over 120 units.
To avoid battle barriers and high costs, the program was scrapped in 2006. Not only that, the US ceased all production of the F-22 Raptor in 2011, ultimately closing any future hopes and dreams for the FB-22 Strike Raptor.
Since the end of the Vietnam War, Vietnamese civilians have been making the most of US military waste. Reduce, reuse, recycle has taken on a whole new meaning, thanks to enterprising farmers who’ve transformed old jettisoned external fuel tanks into canoes.
Reduce, reuse, recycle
In aviation, jettisoning is a method of expelling external items and fuel in case of an emergency. Specifically, external fuel stores that significantly extended the range of fighter jets – but hindered speed and maneuverability – were jettisoned once the fuel had been used, and even during combat.
Throughout the Vietnam War, thousands of external fuel tanks were dropped along the countryside. For many farmers in rural Vietnam, they were a literal gift from the heavens.
A boy hops out of a canoe made from fuel tanks dropped by US bombers during the Vietnam War. (Photo Credit: Jerry Redfern / LightRocket / Getty Images)
The tanks were manufactured in a clamshell style, with two halves put together to create a hollow tank. These halves snapped together and were secured by a belt, and the farmers who stumbled upon them realized they could just as easily take them apart.
The light metal the tanks were made from made them perfect waterproof river boats. Nearly 50 years after the war, many of these improvised vessels remain fully functional, providing a vital form of transportation along the river systems that travel across the remote regions of the country.
Development of the drop tank
The external tanks, also known as drop tanks, were first developed and implemented during the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, the German Luftwaffe began to develop 300-liter external fuel tanks made of light alloy for the Junkers Ju 87R.
Two grounds crewmen log a shipment of drop fuel tanks for use by fighter aircraft during the Aleutian Islands Campaign, 1940s. (Photo Credit: PhotoQuest / Getty Images)
The Allies and Royal Air Force (RAF) began to develop their own drop tanks, which were used to extend the range of fighter patrols and long-range medium bombers. Many early critics believed the long-range escort fighters used to protect precious heavy bomber fleets could be easily convinced to drop their external fuel tanks at the beginning of a raid, creating competition for resources between the long-range medium bombers.
These critics were proven wrong when it was realized that Operation Vengeance, which downed Japanese Adm. Isoroku Yamamoto‘s aircraft, wouldn’t have been successful without the additional 450 extra gallons of fuel supplied by the drop tanks equipped to several Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters.
Toward the end of the war, metal shortages threatened Allied success. Drop tanks, which weren’t considered an essential use of metal, were redesigned to be fabricated from specialized glue and kraft paper that were not just waterproof, but tolerant to the heat and cold.
The “papier-mâché” tanks could only be used once, but were extremely effective while also saving vital metal resources. Funny enough, they were painted a bright silver color, whereas the metal tanks were a dull grey, and were light enough for just one person to carry when empty.
Drop tanks became improvised bombs
American fighter pilots took their use of drop tanks to a whole new level. It was rare, but some Republic P-47 Thunderbolt pilots creatively switched their fuel source from external to internal tanks while flying low over the enemy. They would jettison the drop tanks still filled with fuel, then quickly swoop back around and aim right at the rapidly descending tank.
Once hit with ammunition, the fuel would ignite and rupture the metal tanks like a bomb.
US Air Force North American P-51 Mustang releases drop tanks repurposed as napalm canisters during the Korean War. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
Other methods of improvised fuel tank bombs included adding ingredients to create what was essentially a napalm bomb that would explode upon impact. This method, which was heavily used during the Korean War, worked on both metal and “papier-mâché” drop tanks, while the “drop and shoot” technique was only effective with metal tanks.
Ultimately, fuel tanks made for the purpose of single-use energy found new lives in a variety of ways, in times of peace and war. What was originally a symbol of ingenuity became violent with the introduction of improvised napalm bombs, and the tanks are now helping to heal communities devastated by the Vietnam War, thanks to local resourcefulness.
The story of the Donner Party is one of struggle, family ties, survival, and tragedy. While the story is partly that of an amazing journey, it is remembered for a gruesome detail, one that disgusts at the same time that it fascinates. It is said that through one of the most extreme tales of survival in American history, the Donner Party had to resort to extreme measures to survive, though many did not survive. It is said that they ate their dead.
The Donner Party was a group of 87 emigrants who set forth in a wagon train for California. The core group left Independence, Missouri in May of 1846. They picked up many more along the way. The group is named for its leader — George Donner. George and his brother Jacob’s family made up 16 of the travelers.
Donner Party Map
Donner Party map of the encampments.
Before the month of their departure was even out, the Donner Party lost its first pioneer. An older woman died of natural causes and was buried along the way. Another four would die before the grisliest part of the Donner Party tale. The going was not easy for this wagon train. Even without later events, one could say that this group did not have luck on their side.
Traveling through the wilderness with livestock, people and goods was not exactly a walk in the park in the mid-nineteenth century. However, it was done with great success and the westward push went down in history. The Donner Party had it even harder due to a mistake. George Donner took the party through the Great Salt Lake Basin, thanks to advice from “The Emigrants’ Guide to Oregon and California” by Lansford Hastings. Hastings Cutoff was the name of the shortcut. Hastings himself had never taken a wagon through the area and probably should not have suggested that such groups go that route. Doing so was ill-advised. They went off the main route in southwestern Wyoming. They then went through Utah and part of Nevada on the cutoff. It took them through the desert and added at least one month to their trip thanks to wagons sinking in the sand, water shortages, etc.
By the time the Donner Party had made it through the cutoff, they had lost numerous cattle to Native American theft and killing. They had used up many of their supplies. The men were also tired from hacking their way through the rough terrain of the cutoff. Everyone was on edge. There was fighting, alleged theft, accusations, and one elderly man was even left by the side of the trail to die. This was the situation before the worst of their troubles began.
Because of their perils, the Donner Party was in the Sierra Nevada Mountains when they should have already been in California. They knew that snow would come, but believed they had roughly three weeks until the pass was impossible to navigate. They were wrong. Because they had split up along the journey for numerous reasons, 60 pioneers set up at Truckee Lake (Donner Lake) in three cabins that were already located there, while the Donners set up at Alder Creek in tents. They would be unable to leave for several months. The snow kept coming until it was more than 20 feet deep.
Over the months from November to about April, when the entire party and then just those who had yet to be rescued remained, one of the saddest stories to come out of the westward expansion unfolded. First, they ate what little livestock remained. They traveled between the two camps when possible and there was some sharing, but there was very little to share. There was some hunting when possible, but it is almost certain that they had to resort to eating rodents and family pets before long. It is natural to shudder at the thought, but considering that these people were boiling leather and softening bones to eat, it is understandable. They were cold, starving, and trapped.
Stumps of trees cut at the Alder Creek site by members of the Donner Party, the photograph was taken in 1866. The height of the stumps indicates the depth of snow.
During their ordeal, a group of men and women went out on snowshoes they fabricated from their supplies. They were going to try to get help and bring it back to the camps. Unfortunately, the “Forlorn Hope,” as they came to be known, wound up worse off for their trouble. The detachment of 15 pioneers became lost. Only seven lived and the story has it that they lived by eating their dead. There were no murders.
Stories from rescuers and allegedly some Donner Party members later stated that there was pretty rampant cannibalism near the end of their stay in the prison of snow. Nearly half of the Donner Party died from malnutrition, infection and other ailments. Of those people, about 21 of them are thought to have been eaten, though none of the eaten were murdered.
Evidence for Donner Party cannibalism includes the abovementioned witness and a journal entry by Patrick Breen dated February 26, 1847. In this entry, Patrick mentions that Mrs. Murphy was talking about eating the dead, but that he did not think she had done it. He also mentioned that the Donners were talking about eating their dead and that he assumed they had done so by the time of his writing. This, and the testimony of rescuers that they had seen severed body parts when they reached the Donner Party, are the best evidence for cannibalism we have.
There is some evidence to the contrary of cannibalism. A group of anthropologists studied the bones found in the cooking fire of the campsite at the creek and found no human bones. Many take this to mean that there was no cannibalism. However, it is important to remember that the Alder Creek Camp was only one portion of the Donner Party. There were the temporary camps of the “Forlorn Hope” party and the three cabins on the lake. There is also the fact that the human bones may not have been cooked in the hearth the way the animal bones were cooked.
From a perspective of documentation, the Donner Party was forced to cannibalize some of their deceased family and friends. There is no concrete evidence to support this, but there is the fact that they were starving. Patrick Breen had no reason to make up stories about people thinking about eating other people in his situation. He did not state it happened outright, but they were there for several more weeks after that entry. The party had to eat something or die. It seems highly likely that some of them went for the only food source that was left, as so often happens in survival situations where there is no food.
Sources
Trails to Utah and the Pacific: Diaries and Letters, 1846-1869, retrieved 4/14/12, loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/connections/trails/thinking5.html
No Evidence For Donner Party Cannibalism, Anthropologists Say, Science20, retrieved 4/14/12.
Archaeologists recently made a highly significant discovery in Egypt. In a find some are describing as the most significant since the Tomb of Tutankhamen, a lost “Golden City” of Egypt has been found, with the potential to change our understanding of Egyptian history forever.
The recent discovery, found near Thebes in Egypt has been dubbed “The Rise of Aten” and dates back more than 3,000 years. This discovery is said to be the largest ancient municipality that has ever been discovered within the country.
The city has been hidden underneath the sands of Luxor’s western bank in the south of Egypt. This city dates to the rule of King Amenhotep III, from around 1391 to 1353 BC, according to the lead archaeologist, Zahi Hawass.
Amenhotep was the 9th king of the 18th dynasty, ruling over a peaceful, prosperous and wealthy land. His reign, free from war, saw the construction of many huge public buildings and temples.
A Chance Discovery
The Lost Golden City was not the prime discovery that the archaeologists had intended to make. Hawass and his other team members had initially visited the area in September 2020, in the hopes of finding a mortuary temple. But, instead of the expected religious buildings, a whole city began to emerge.
The location of the city on an early map of the area. The site is across the Nile from the great palace complex of Karnak (Description de l’Égypte / CC BY-SA 4.0)
The city was well organized, with an administrative area consisting of several large buildings with 10 foot (3 meter) brick walls, separate from that of the residential district. Further discoveries revealed a workshop area, where amulets, mud bricks, and other goods were made. The archaeologists also found other mercantile buildings, including a bakery.
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But the focus of the workshops was the construction and adornment of the huge temples, potentially including those in the large burial area was also discovered around the city outskirts. Much of this latter area, including the skeletal occupants of the graves, is still to be excavated.
But it is with the areas used by the living inhabitants of this city that there is the most potential. This discovery has the potential to give us a glimpse into how ancient Egyptians lived their lives, during a peaceful and wealthy time for Egypt.
The excavation began in September 2020, but the work is not yet over. Only the southern part of the newly-discovered city has been excavated or explored to date, with even the full extent of the city being unclear.
Treasures Beneath the Sands
Archaeologists had initially theorized that the site might have held a mortuary structure, where the subjects of Tutankhamun would have placed funerary items and food that they offered to him after he died in 1325 BC. But instead they discovered the zigzagging mudbrick walls and artifacts of a living city.
The structures around the city contained everyday items, including items used by artists, alongside more industrial finds. Evidence from the homes found around the city suggested that they housed workers. Everything pointed to this being the Pharaoh’s capital city.
The ruins form part of Akhenaten’s Malkata palace complex (Markh / Public Domain)
Evidence of glass and metal production was found, as well as a cemetery filled with rock tombs. Apart from human skeletons, unusually skeletons of cows or bulls have also been found within the city walls. Researchers are investigating why these livestock animals were found in this way.
But the crowning achievement of this archaeological expedition must be the discovery of 22 mummies, all royal, and with no fewer than 18 kings. These mummies included those of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, his wife, and are on display in the New National Museum of Egyptian Civilization.
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Some of the buildings bore the name of Amenhotep III’s son, Akhenaten. A controversial Pharaoh, Akhenaten abandoned the old Egyptian pantheon in favor of worshipping a single sun god. Akhenaten also abandoned many of the existing religious sites in Egypt, including apparently this newly-discovered city.
Abandoned and Forgotten
The researchers note that ancient Egypt’s loss is modern archaeology’s gain, as the decision to abandon the site has led to its preservation over the millennia. While Akhenaten’s new religion did not survive long beyond his death, his son Tutankhamun seemed to prefer not to return to The Rise Of Aten, instead building a new capital at Memphis.
Tutankhamun, and his Vizier Ay who succeeded him, seem to have continued to make some use of the site, but it was never the focus of Royal patronage as it was before Akhenaten’s sudden religious reforms. Analysis of the four settlement layers at the site suggests it was inhabited as late as the 7th century AD, before being abandoned to the sands altogether.
The greatest find since Tutankhamun’s tomb? (Mary Harrsch / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Not since the discovery of the nearby Tutankhamen’s tomb in 1922 has such a significant discovery been made. Hawass named this city “The Golden City” because it was built during the golden age of Egypt, and in the hopes of the archaeological treasures which might be found there.
Amenhotep III may well have been the wealthiest Pharaoh of all time, and this city was built during this peaceful period in Egypt’s history. Many answers, including how these people lived, and why the grandson of Amenhotep chose not to return, may await discovery.
Top Image: Amenhotep III and his sun temple at Luxor. Source: Inigolaitxu / Adobe Stock; Ángel M. Felicísimo / CC BY 2.0.
Adrian Carton de Wiart. Not many people know the name, but it belonged to one of the most battle-scarred soldiers in the history of the British Army. Carton de Wiart served in three different wars, and don’t think he got away unscathed. He suffered 11 injuries, and by the end of his military career was a one-eyed, one-handed war hero – and that’s just scratching the surface of his military career.
Adrian Carton de Wiart’s early years
On May 5, 1880, Adrian Carton de Wiart was born to an aristocratic family in Brussels, Belgium. Growing up relatively well-off, Carton de Wiart was sent to boarding school in England and eventually studyied law at Balliol College at Oxford University. Itching for something more, he dropped out and enrolled in the British Army.
Adrian Carton de Wiart, 1944. (Photo Credit: Cecil Beaton / National Portrait Gallery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
At the time, Carton de Wiart was underaged, not a British subject (he was of Belgian and Irish descent) and did not have his father’s consent. That didn’t stop him. Carton de Wiart, who was 20 years old, pretended to be 25 and signed up under the pseudonym “Trooper Carton.”
Service during the Second Boer War
In 1899, Adrian Carton de Wiart left for Africa with the Middlesex Yeomanry during the Second Boer War. While serving in South Africa with Paget’s Horse, the elite 19th Battalion Imperial Yeomanry, he received the first of nearly a dozen combat wounds. He was shot in the stomach and groin, and was forced to return to England to recover.
Lt. Col. Adrian Carton de Wiart during his World War I service. (Photo Credit: Henry Walter Barnett / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Carton de Wiart’s father was furious upon his return, but allowed him to remain in the army. Following another stint at Oxford, he was commissioned in the Second Imperial Light Horse, and later returned to South Africa, where he was given a regular commission as a second lieutenant with the 4th Dragoon Guards.
Adrian Carton de Wiart survived serious injuries during World War I
Despite his renewed service in South Africa, Adrian Carton de Wiart didn’t see frontline action again for over a decade. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Carton de Wiart was a British subject and quickly began serving with the Somaliland Camel Corps. While fighting off the Dervish State, he was hit by gunfire in the arm and face. The shot to his face took out his left eye and part of his ear.
Remembering the incident, military buddy and then-staff officer Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay said Carton de Wiart must have been in agony, and that the doctor had said there was nothing he could do to save the eye and that the injured soldier had to be kept with them until it was safe. Ismay recalled, “I honestly believe that he regarded the loss of an eye as a blessing as it allowed him to get out of Somaliland to Europe where he thought the real action was.”
Adrian Carton de Wiart sits for his portrait by artist Mollie Forestier-Walker, March 1950. (Photo Credit: Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
After returning to England, Carton de Wiart recovered and was given a glass eye. It was extremely uncomfortable, but he needed it to be declared medically cleared and fit for service. As soon as he was able, he threw the glass eye out of a taxi window and slung on his iconic eye patch.
Losing a hand on the Western Front
In 1915, Adrian Carton de Wiart was sent to the Western Front, where he participated in the Second Battle of Ypres. During the battle, the German Army launched an artillery barrage, which shattered Carton de Wiart’s left hand. When a doctor refused to amputate two dangling finger, the British officer ripped them off himself. Later that year, a surgeon amputated the entire hand.
Adrian Carton de Wiart during his service in World War I. (Photo Credit: H. Walter Barnett / National Portrait Gallery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Despite having lost both his left eye and hand, Carton de Wiart somehow managed to get medically cleared. In 1916, he was the commander of the 8th Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment at the Battle of the Somme, where he received the Victoria Cross for his efforts. There, he inspired awe in his men as he pulled grenade pins with his teeth and hurled them at the enemy with his one good arm.
Carton de Wiart went on to fight additional battles in WWI, including the battles of Passchendaele, Cambrai and Arras, and experienced even more injuries. Following the conflict, he spent time living in Poland as second-in-command of the British-Polish Military Mission.
Adrian Carton de Wiart was a prisoner of war during World War II
When World War II began, Adrian Carton de Wiart continued his service. After providing military advice in Poland, he led a campaign in Norway and was stationed in Northern Ireland with the 61st Division. He was dispatched to Yugoslavia in 1941. On his way there, his plane was shot down over the Mediterranean. He survived the crash, swam ashore and was taken prisoner by the Italians.
At this point, Carton de Wiart was 60 years old, but that didn’t stop him from trying to escape. He and three other prisoners – Richard O’Connor, Thomas Ranfurly and Philip Neame – were committed to escaping, and Carton de Wiart made five attempts. He escaped through a tunnel he’d dug for seven months and spent 18 days disguised as an Italian peasant before he was captured and taken to Rome.
Maj. Gen. Adrian Carton de Wiart standing with Brig. John Combe, Maj. Gen. Michael Gambier-Parry and Brig. Edward Todhunter, 1941. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
Carton de Wiart was then brought to Lisbon and his release was negotiated. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill then had him sent to China to become the Government’s Military Representative to General Chiang Kai-Shek. He held this position until 1946, during which time he toured the Burma Front.
In October 1947, Carton de Wiart officially retired from the British Army, having been given the honorary rank of lieutenant general. During his service, he’d suffered injuries to his face, stomach, left eye, ear, hip, ankle, head and leg, and along with the Victoria Cross was presented with the Croix de guerre, the Polish Cross of Valour and the British War Medal, among other decorations.
A peaceful end to an exciting life
In contrast to the gruesome injuries he experienced in battle and the toll they took on his body, Adrian Carton de Wiart lived a peaceful life following his retirement. He wrote an autobiography, titled Happy Odyssey: The Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart, that Churchill wrote the foreword for. Surprisingly, his earning of the Victoria Cross wasn’t mentioned.
Adrian Carton de Wiart with the British Joint Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Gerald Isaacs, April 1951. (Photo Credit: Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)After years of service, Carton de Wiart settled in County Cork, Ireland and died peacefully at home in June 1963, at the age of 83. He and his second wife, Joan, are buried in Caum Churchyard.
Russia during the first half of the 20th century was both massive and constantly engaged in military conflict. One man who made a name for himself during the fighting was Konstantin Rokossovsky, who by the end of his military career was made the marshal of two different country’s armies.
Konstantin Rokossovsky’s early life and entry into the military
Konstantin Rokossovsky was born in Warsaw, Poland on December 21, 1896. At the time, the country was part of the Russian Empire. He grew up relatively well off, as his family were members of the Polish nobility and his father worked as an inspector for the Warsaw Railways. Unfortunately, both he and Rokossovsky’s mother had both passed by the time he was 14 years old.
Konstantin Rokossovsky, then-Marshal of the Soviet Union, 1945 (Photo Credit: Sovfoto / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
As a youth, he trained as a stonemason. When the First World War began, Rokossovsky enlisted with the Russian Imperial Army and was assigned to the 5th Kargopol Dragoon Regiment as a cavalry soldier, falling in line with previous generations of his family.
It didn’t take long for him to distinguish himself as a talented soldier, and he ended the conflict having reached the rank of junior non-commissioned officer.
Distinguishing himself during the Russian Civil War
Toward the end of World War I, Russia became embroiled in a civil war. Rokossovsky, like many other Russians, kept on fighting. He joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and became a member of the Red Army. During the conflict, he regularly commanded calvaries, and was wounded in the shoulder while fighting campaigns against Aleksandr Kolchak‘s White Guard armies in 1919.
He later received the Order of the Red Banner, the highest honor presented by the Russian Army at the time.
Men were drafted to fight with the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. (Photo Credit: Slava Katamidze Collection / Getty Images)
In 1921, Rokossovsky wound up in Mongolia, aiding the Mongolian People’s Republic in repeling Hungarian Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, who believed he was the reincarnation of Genghis Khan. The mission was successful, and the Mongolian and Russian forces were able to capture the country’s capital.
Konstantin Rokossovsky is arrested and accused of being a traitor
Despite his long and distinguished military career, Konstantin Rokossovsky could not avoid being swept up in Joseph Stalin‘s Great Purge. He was arrested and accused of being a traitor and a spy, with Stalin using his Polish background and past associations as evidence.
While in prison, Rokossovsky refused to sign a statement admitting to his “crimes.” This led to regular beatings and mock shooting ceremonies. Following his trial, he was sent to Kresty Prison in Leningrad, where he remained until March 1940.
Joseph Stalin put Konstantin Rokossovsky in prison in the late 1930s. The distinguished military man was accused of being a traitor and spy. (Photo Credit: Laski Diffusion / Getty Images)
His grandson, Col. Konstantin Rokossovsky Vilevich, later explained:
“The evidence was based on the testimony of Adolph Yushkevich, a colleague of my grandfather in the Civil War. But my grandfather knew very well that Yushkevich died in Perekop. He said that he would sign [a confession] if Adolph was brought for a confrontation. They looked for Yushkevich and found that he had died long before.”
The Russians needed his expertise
When the Germans invaded Russia during the Second World War, Konstantin Rokossovky, then out of prison, joined what Russia called “The Great Patriotic War.” He put his past accusations as a spy and traitor behind him and rose through the ranks of the Red Army. His fingerprints were all over some of the biggest battles of the conflict, including the battles of Brody, Smolensk and Moscow.
Konstantin Rokossovsky wearing his full military uniform, 1949. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)
Rokossovsky was involved in the planning of Operation Bagration and repeatedly butted heads with Stalin over strategy. Stalin wanted to keep the Soviet practice of breaking through the German line from a singular place, while Rokossovsky argued for a two-point breakthrough. In the end, Stalin went with Rokossovky’s plan and Russia won a crushing victory.
Thanks to this success, Rokossovsky was named the Marshal of the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Order of the Bath in 1945 and later named the Commanding Officer of the Victory Parade in Moscow.
Konstantin Rokossovsky’s later military career and retirement
In 1949, Stalin paid Konstantin Rokossovsky back by making him the Marshal of Poland, as well as the Polish Minister of Defense. While he worked hard in this post, securing commanding positions for thousands of Soviet officers within the Polish military, Rokossovsky never really felt at home. He once explained, “In Russia, they say I’m a Pole, in Poland they call me Russian.”
Rokossovsky played a heavy role in the Sovietization of Poland.
Konstantin Rokossovsky sporting his litany of medals. (Photo Credit: Getty Images)
Rokossovsky officially resigned from the military in 1962, four years after being named the chief inspector of the Ministry of Defence, and spent much of his retirement hunting. He passed away in 1968, at the age of 71, and his ashes were placed at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis on Red Square.
When the RMS Olympic was launched in October 1910, she was the largest man-made moving object in the world. At 882 feet long, Olympic set the standard for White Star Line’s Olympic-class ocean liners, and not only changed the luxury liner industry, but also had an impact on the First World War.
The RMS Olympic was laid down as a luxury liner
The RMS Olympic was the first of three Olympic-class ocean liners commissioned by White Star Line, a British shipping company. Completed in May 1911, she was later joined by the HMHS Britannic and the RMS Titanic. When the Titanic was completed the following year, several adjustments to the original design put her at 1,000 tons heavier than Olympic, making her the largest ship in the world.
While most of the world knows the tragic fate of the Titanic, the history of her sister ship Olympic is just as violent.
Olympic set sail on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England to New York City in June 1911. Captained by Edward Smith, she successfully reached her destination. The sheer size and grandeur of the luxury liner attracted global attention, so much so that 8,000 visitors toured the vessel when she was opened to the public while docked in New York.
RMS Olympic‘s collision and the sinking of the RMS Titanic
While the RMS Olympic‘s first four voyages went according to plan, the fifth was when tragedy first struck the luxury liner. On September 20, 1911, Olympic collided with HMS Hawke, an Edgar-class British cruiser, in the Solent strait. Hawke‘s bow, which was designed to ram into enemy ships, collided with Olympic near her stern, tearing two large holes into her hull.
Even though the damage flooded two of Olympic‘s watertight compartments, she was able to return to port at Southhampton without a single serious injury onboard. Hawke almost sank, but was repaired and returned to service. She was sunk by a German U-boat in 1914.
Hole torn in the hull of the RMS Olympic after her collision with the HMS Hawke in the Solent strait, September 20, 1911. (Photo Credit: Kirk and Sons of Cowes / Heritage Images / Getty Images)
Olympic was returning to Southampton from New York City on April 14, 1912 when the ship’s wireless operator, Ernest James Moore, received a distress call from the Titanic. The sinking ship was 500 nautical miles away, but the crew of Olympic leaped into action and set a new course toward the vessel to rescue passengers.
One hundred nautical miles away from her destination, Olympic received a message from the RMS Carpathia, which had arrived at the scene first. Arthur Henry Roston, Carpathia‘s captain, informed Olympic that the Titanic had sunk around 2:20 AM, and under the orders of White Star Line’s Bruce Ismay, Olympic was advised not to take on survivors from the Carpathia. He believed they would feel distressed being on a ship that was identical to the Titanic.
The RMS Titanic and RMS Olympic seen together for the last time, February 3, 1912. (Photo Credit: Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Not only was Olympic identical to the Titanic in design, she also carried the same amount of lifeboats – a number too low to save everyone onboard. This resulted in a mutiny among the vessel’s 280 firemen, who went on strike until an additional 40 collapsible lifeboats were added to the ship.
White Star Line resigned Olympic six months after the Titanic tragedy and refitted her with new safety precautions. This included increasing the number of lifeboats and reinforcing the hull with additional lining. The bulkheads were also extended to the B-deck level, a critical change, considering how easily they flooded over during the sinking of the Titanic.
The new and improved Olympic was returned to service in March 1913, just as World War I drew near.
Rescue of the HMS Audacious (1912)
At the start of WWI, the RMS Olympic continued commercial voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Her final one left New York City for Glasgow, Scotland on October 21, 1914, with just 153 passengers onboard. Six days into the journey, the crew received distress signals from a nearby battleship, the HMS Audacious (1912). Audacious had struck a German sea mine off the coast of Ireland and was at risk of sinking.
The sinking of the HMS Audacious (1912), October 1914. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror Archive / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)
Olympic saved 250 crew members from the sinking ship. The luxury liner attempted to tow the Audacious, but the cable connecting her to Olympic broke three times. Instead of towing the ship, Olympic took on the remaining crew members who looked on as an explosion rang out and the Audacious finally sank.
From luxury liner to hero troopship
The RMS Olympic was requisitioned as a troopship in 1915, becoming the HMT Olympic. Her large size and already established living quarters made her perfect for transporting troops to Europe. She was stripped of her luxury finishings, decorated in dazzle camouflage and armed with 12-pound cannons and 4.7-inch naval artillery guns.
The HMT Olympic in dazzle camouflage after her service as a troopship in World War I, 1919. (Photo Credit: Pictures from History / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Olympic set sail for Greece from Liverpool in September 1915, carrying 6,000 British troops headed to the Gallipoli Campaign. In May 1918, Olympic went above and beyond her station when her crew members spotted a German U-boat while traveling through the English Channel. As SM U-103 attempted to torpedo the troopship, Olympic sprung into action and rammed into the enemy vessel, successfully sinking the U-boat.
By the end of the war, Olympic had earned the nickname “Old Reliable.” She’d traveled over 180,000 miles and carried more than 200,000 soldiers between 1915-19.
HMT Olympic‘s fate
Following the war, the HMT Olympic was refitted into her former glory as a commercial passenger vessel. She operated from 1920-35 until her retirement, which was likely due to a fatal collision with the Nantucket lightship (LV-117), not far from New York in May 1934. After failing to see the smaller lightship in the water, Olympic couldn’t turn in time to avoid slicing through the vessel. Seven crew members were killed in the incident.
The RMS Olympic in White Star dock 44, Southampton, 1933. (Photo Credit: English Heritage / Heritage Images / Getty Images)
In 1934, White Star Line merged with Cunard Line to form Cunard Star. While the company contemplated keeping Olympic in service, it was later decided to retire the vessel. After 257 round-trips across the Atlantic, she was sold and scrapped between 1935-37.
The US military has a long and complicated history when it comes to the treatment of minorities within its ranks. While things have certainly improved, it’s important to remember the struggles many faced while fighting for their country. This is especially true of African-Americans during the First World War.
War History Online was lucky enough to speak with US Lt. Gen. Larry R. Jordan about this and his own 35-year career within the US Army. His insight was invaluable and adds a lot of weight to what should be an ongoing conversation.
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s education and entry into the US military
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan was born on February 7, 1946, in Kansas City, Missouri. While attending Central High School, from which he graduated in 1964, he was a member of the Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC), which was a mandatory requirement for males at the majority of Kansas City’s public high schools. JROTC sparked Jordan’s interest in the US military, as did studying history, and he made the decision to apply for the US Military Academy West Point.
“By the time I began to apply for colleges, I was interested in the Military Academy and applied,” Jordan told War History Online. “[I] really wasn’t interested in the Navy or the Marine Corps. I did think about the Air Force, but, as it turned out, I ended up going to West Point, the oldest of the academies, and really enjoyed my time there.”
Lt. Gen. Larry R. Jordan. (Photo Credit: Mr. Scott Davis / U.S. Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
According to Jordan, West Point provided him with the foundation needed to succeed in his career in the Army. After graduating in 1968 with a Bachelor’s Degree in engineering, he was commissioned into the Army as an armored officer, and later earned his Master’s Degree in history at Indiana University Bloomington. That wasn’t the end of his education, however, as he dedicated his time to learn a number of different disciplines.
While with the military, Jordan also attended the National War College at the National Defense University, the US Army Armor School, the US Marine Corps Amphibious Warfare School (now the Expeditionary Warfare School), the US Army Ranger and Airborne School, and the US Army Command and Staff College (CGSC). He also completed the National and International Security Management program at Harvard University in 1992.
US Army cadets make their way through campus at the US Military Academy West Point, March 30, 2007. (Photo Credit: DON EMMERT / AFP / Getty Images)
“I learned a lot about myself [at West Point],” he shared. “I learned a lot about how people react to various situations and stresses. You learn that in a lot of schools – particularly Ranger School – you learn that about yourself. You learn how much you can endure and still function. You learn how people react when they’re tired, hungry, concerned, frightened, and how you have to attempt to lead them.”
Serving with the “Big Red One” in Vietnam
Throughout his 35 years of service within the US Armed Forces, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan fought in a number of conflicts and was stationed in a number of countries. From 1969 to 1970, he served a combat tour in Vietnam with the 1st Infantry Division – the “Big Red One” – which is the oldest continuously serving division within the Regular Army. It was founded in May 1917 and is headquartered at Fort Riley, Kansas.
Soldiers with the 1st Infantry Division dash through an area devastated by B-52 Stratofortress bombers, toward the scene of a brief battle with Viet Cong forces. Troops of the “Big Red One” came under fire as they moved through the area following the air raid. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
During the Vietnam War, he was assigned as a platoon leader, along with two others who attended West Point with him. In 1969, the US government had conducted draft lotteries and, as a result, many of those serving overseas hadn’t volunteered to serve and “wanted to get on with their jobs. They wanted to get past that and move on.”
Despite the many men who had been drafted, Jordan didn’t see a decrease in troop morale, and he himself knew his mission was to “go after the enemy, but at the same time bring Americans home alive and well.”
The 1st Infantry Division’s area of operations in Vietnam included French-owned rubber plantations around Saigon. (Photo Credit: Nik Wheeler / Getty Images)
Vietnam was the first American-involved war where White and African-American troops weren’t segregated. While racism and informal segregation did occur in some combat units and even during the recruiting process, Jordan shared he himself didn’t experience any discrimination because of the color of his skin.
“I never faced any official discrimination,” he said. “The Army by that time had some pretty stringent rules against discrimination. They wanted to treat all soldiers equally because they wanted to keep morale up – if you want unit cohesion, you’ve got to have that. Of course, you run into individuals whose personal prejudices and biases just come to the surface, and if you confront those in a professional way…”
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s service in Operation Desert Storm
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan also served his country during Operation Desert Storm. He was fighting with an all-volunteer force, as opposed to the largely draft Army he’d fought alongside in Vietnam. As well, the Army was quite a bit more capable by 1991, “because we had made great progress in technology, our equipment – even our training methodologies were better.”
All in all, he found Desert Storm and the US military’s success in the Gulf War to be a “fantastic operation.”
An American M1A1 Abrams tank crossing the desert during the Gulf War, 1991. (Photo Credit: Allan Tannenbaum / Getty Images)
When asked to compare the difference between both Vietnam and Desert Storm, Jordan said it came down to his rank at the time and the different perspectives that came along with that.
“In Vietnam, I was there with about 35 soldiers and a platoon, and out there on the ground and moving through the bamboo or the jungle or the sawgrass,” he explained. “In Desert Storm, I was a major general and I was certainly in harm’s way, but I had different concerns and worries, and those concerns were, ‘Are we doing the right thing for our units? Are we going to get units in trouble? Can we supply them? Can we provide them with the support they need?’”
Additional service in the US Army and retirement
Outside of Vietnam and Operation Desert Storm, Larry Jordan served three different tours in Europe, including as the deputy commanding general of the US Army and the 7th Army in Germany. He also conducted three tours at the Pentagon, as well as assignments in Israel and the Middle East.
US Army soldiers in the US Army Ranger Course. Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan completed the course during his career in the US military. (Photo Credit: Sgt. Paul Sale / Office of the Chief of Public Affairs / DVIDS / Public Domain)
While on duty in the United States, he held many prominent positions, including the commanding general of the US Army Armor School, the Deputy Inspector General of the US Army, and the Inspector General of the US Army, the latter of which allowed him to work closely with the Secretary and Chief of Staff of the Army. On top of all this, he also served as an assistant professor at West Point for three years.
Jordan’s last assignment prior to his retirement was as the deputy commanding general of the US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) headquarters at Fort Eustis, Virginia (now Joint Base Langley-Eustis) from 2001-03. At the time of his retirement from the Army, he’d left a legacy that included the Distinguished Service Medal, the Silver Star, the Legion of Merit, and the Bronze Star, among a number of other decorations.
While he finds these awards rewarding, he tries “to give credit to the people [who] were working with me and for me, because without their support and their hard efforts, we wouldn’t accomplish anything. It’s nice to be recognized by your service and by the nation, but it’s more important to me personally to be recognized as having taken care of people.”
Roosevelt Hall at the National War College. Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan attended the National War College during his military career. (Photo Credit: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Following his retirement, Jordan became the senior vice president of Burdeshaw Associates, a business consulting agency, and is currently the Principal of LNJ Group, LLC. He’s also a member of the Council of Trustees of the Association of the US Army, the Board of Directors of the National Urban Fellows and the Board of Directors of the Army Historical Foundation.
When asked what he’d like his legacy to be, he responded, “I tell folks that the only legacy that any of us can leave in the Army or any of the services is in terms of the people and places we touch. We touch them for the better or the worse. I hope I touched both for the better.”
African-Americans enlist to serve in World War I
For Memorial Day 2022, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan is speaking at the National WWI Museum and Memorial, in recognition of its “Black Citizenship in the Age of Jim Crow” exhibit. While he wants to recognize all Americans who served during World War I, he wants those in attendance to remember the causes for which they fought: “liberty, justice, freedom [and] democracy.”
African-American troops, 1917. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Before one can truly understand the depth of Jordan’s words, an understanding of the service of the nation’s African-American population must first be discussed. Over the course of WWI, around 200,000 African-Americans served the country, with 100,000 of those men being sent to Europe. Of that total, only 41,000 were assigned to combat roles. The rest were assigned to segregated labor battalions and made to perform menial tasks.
When the US officially joined the war in 1917, the country only had four all-Black regiments: the 24th and 25th infantry and the 9th and 10th cavalry. At that time, over 20,000 African-Americans enlisted with the military, a number which increased following the enacting of the Selective Service Act, which required all males between the ages of 21-31 to register for the draft.
Sadly, they were barred from joining the US Marines Corps and thus were only able to obtain positions with the US Navy and Coast Guard. Even though they were allowed to join the Army, they were banned from serving with its aviation units.
African-American soldier saluting the American flag, 1917. (Photo Credit: GHI / Universal History Archive / Getty Images)
Once enlisted, African-American trainees were subjected to the same racist and discriminatory behaviors as they had been while civilians; Jim Crow attitudes and laws had followed them into the military. Segregated transportation drove them to segregated military bases and training facilities. While protests occurred, little was done to rectify the situation, with the Department of War unwilling to “undertake at this time to settle the so-called race question.”
African-American units are deployed to Europe
African-American units provided much-needed support to America’s allies in Europe. The first units to arrive in France were laborers, engineers and stevedores, with the 369th Infantry Regiment, a combat regiment consisting of Black troops, arriving soon after. They were known by a number of nicknames, including the “Men of Bronze” and the “Black Rattlers.”
The German Army gave them their best-known moniker: the “Hell Fighters” or “Harlem Hellfighters.” This was because they “never lost a man through capture, lost a trench or a foot of ground to the enemy.”
The arrival of the 369th Infantry Regiment – nicknamed the “Harlem Hellfighters” – in New York after World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The 369th served the longest of any regiment in a foreign army during WWI, and they were the first to reach the Rhine River. They saw a lot of action during their 191-day deployment, including at the Second Battle of the Marne. They were treated equally by their White counterparts in the French Army, a stark contrast to how White American troops viewed them and their service.
The 370th Infantry Regiment, 93rd Infantry Division, nicknamed the “Black Devils” for the fierceness of their fighting force, was another African-American unit assigned to the French Army. What made the 370th so notable was that it was the only one commanded by Black officers. The regiment’s troops fought with distinction in both Belgium and France, participating in the Oise-Aisne Offensive, among other engagements.
Officers with the 370th Infantry Regiment. (Photo Credit: U.S. Army)
Of note are the 104 African-American doctors who volunteered to serve in the country’s all-Black units. They began their training in August 1917, learning about medical and sanitation procedures in combat zones. While 118 doctors attended this training at the segregated Medical Officers Training Camp at Fort Des Moines, Iowa, only 104 graduated. They left for France in May 1918.
Attitudes didn’t change after the armistice
By the time the armistice with Germany was signed on November 11, 1918, African-Americans had served in a number of units and roles. They’d used the war to show their patriotism and that they could contribute to the defense of the country, something that was encouraged by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Squadron A, 351st Field Artillery return home on the Transport Louisville, February 17, 1919. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
Upon their return home, Black servicemen expected greater equality. What they faced, however, was more persecution. Talk of the contributions African-Americans had made to the war effort was deemed to be lies, and many veterans were threatened with death if they went out in public in their military uniforms.
Many were physically attacked during a number of race riots that broke out in the middle of 1919. Dubbed the “Red Summer” by author and civil rights leader James Weldon Johnson, these violent clashes broke out in a number of American cities, including Chicago, Virginia, and Washington, DC.
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s thoughts on how African-Americans were treated
Following WWI, America’s Black population continued to suffer under racist ideologies. While he hates to speculate, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan feels the country may have moved away from such activity had different policies been in place, in regard to military service. He also feels the same can be said about state and community laws.
“It would be very difficult to philosophically support those [laws] if your nation said, ‘Hey, all these individuals have fought for the nation, they have contributed and supported our effort. We are treating them equally and fairly.’ It’s very difficult, then, for you to argue, whether in state courts or local courts or wherever, that it’s alright, that we can prohibit interracial marriage, we can prohibit other things.
“I mean, I could guess that those things might have been different, but I don’t know, because it took a long time to move,” he added.
African-American infantry troops marching northwest of Verdun, France. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Getty Images)
He also adds that the treatment of African-Americans created resolve within the community, saying, “There was disappointment, but there was also resolve, and I tell folks that out of that experience grew what was to become what I call the ‘Double V’ campaign – World War II. A lot of African-Americans said, ‘We have two things – victories – to achieve: victory overseas and victory at home.’
“That energized part of the early Civil Rights Movement and, of course, I think it was July 26th of ’48 [that] President Truman signed the executive order desegregating the Armed Forces, and from then on there’s been steady progress. In many ways, I think the Armed Forces – the Army, in particular – has led the way in that. Not only for African-Americans and other minorities but for women and others.
“So, I think it was an important step along the way,” he continued. “It was a disappointment for many, but it helped the nation face the hypocrisy.”
How is equality presented in the US military today?
When asked what the Armed Forces can do to continue to promote equality within its ranks, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan looks back on his own experiences. As the Inspector General of the Army, he “got a chance to look at the good, the bad, the ugly, and, quite frankly, of all the things I saw, about 95 percent were great. People doing the right things – trying to do the right things.” That’s not to say, however, that people didn’t sometimes “stumble and fall.”
African-American soldiers in France, 1918. (Photo Credit: adoc-photos / Getty Images)
He feels the military is doing the right things and making steps in the right direction but adds that the services need to continue to stress the importance of servicemen and commanders doing what they’re supposed to, which can sometimes be hard, given all they have to contend with.
“The problem is all services have a lot on their plate,” he explained, “and I’ve seen a number of times when the Army will solve a problem and it’ll put it aside and say, ‘Solved that problem. Let’s move to the next challenge.’ And left by itself, because all of the services are made of humans, imperfect humans, those things can get out of order, they can go awry if you don’t keep your eye on them. So you occasionally have things that flare-up.”
The 301st Stevedore Regiment, 23rd Engineers in France during World War I. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
To conclude, Jordan spoke about the progress the Army has made since he enlisted in the 1960s.
“I can’t point a finger at the Army and say that institution discriminated against me because it gave me some opportunities that, otherwise, I wouldn’t have had. Same way with the Academy. Not a perfect place, much better today. In fact, [it] became much better when we let women in – I was only faculty then – because we have a diverse Army that has women in it, and you need that leadership. You need that exposure. You need that perspective and insight.
“We made progress. Sometimes not as quick as we’d like.”
Deception and military subterfuge have been used throughout history. The aim is to give armies the upper hand by tricking the enemy. The practice dates back to the beginning of time and has seen a lot of success. The following are just some of the best and most famous examples of these techniques in action.
Operation Uranus
In the 1930s, Germany and Russia were both significant military powers. In 1941, the German Army invaded Russia. While the Germans made progress along the Eastern Front, they were unprepared for the cold weather, which hindered their success. As well, the forces stationed in Russia were beginning to be stretched thin, meaning they needed to supplement their strength with armies from other Axis powers.
A Russian soldier jumps from a tank during the Battle of Stalingrad. (Photo Credit: Getty Images)
About halfway through the Battle of Stalingrad, from November 19-23, 1942, the Red Army conducted Operation Uranus. The aim was to “show” the Germans that Russia was in terror and mounting its last defense.
Despite their struggles, the Germans still had an air of confidence to them on the Eastern Front. To further grow this and lull them into a false sense of security, the Russians dug fake trenches and deliberately lost skirmishes. They then sent in the full might of their army, resulting in the encirclement of not only the German Sixth Army, but the Third and Fourth Romanian armies and part of the German Fourth Panzer Army.
Q-Ships and the British Royal Navy
During the First World War, German U-boats terrorized the seas. British forces had trouble matching their firepower in one-on-one matchups, so, instead, the British Royal Navy decided to use deception.
The British began arming merchant ships, dubbed “Q-Ships,” with concealed weapons. The common practice for the U-boats was to approach ships and allow passengers to leave on lifeboats before sinking the vessels. As well, since torpedoes were expensive, the Germans often chose to rise to the water’s surface and sink ships with shells.
The HMS Tamarisk (1916) was the first British vessel to be used as a Q-Ship. (Photo Credit: UK Government / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Royal Navy lured U-boats close to shore with their Q-Ships. Once the Germans were close, their artillery would come out and the British would attack at close range. Due to the success of this practice in the 1910s, Q-Ships were used by both the Allied and Axis powers during World War II.
D-Day deceptions
Over the course of WWII, the Allies slowly turned the tide. In order to win the war, they needed to make their way into Germany, and they planned to do so by first landing on – and securing – France. However, the numbers in the Germany Army were still strong and, as such, the Allies needed to make use of subterfuge. One way of accomplishing this was through the use of dummy tanks.
Gen. George Patton, commander of the US Third Army, 1945. (Photo Credit: Galerie Bilderwelt / Getty Images)
In addition, the US forces also had fake parachute jumps and even created a fake Army under the command of Gen. George Patton. Dubbed the First United States Army Group (FUSAG), it was created for Operation Quicksilver, which was a part the larger Operation Bodyguard.
The aim was to convince Germany that the FUSAG was planning an invasion of Calais. To make the deception more realistic, the Allied forces created fuel depots, barracks, tents and ammo dumps. They also made use of double agents, who would present the German high command with false reports about the movements of the FUSAG.
US Troops wading through water after reaching Normandy and landing on Omaha Beach on D-Day, 1944. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
The diversion was successful, and D-Day wound up being the turning point of the conflict.
The Trojan Horse
The best-known story of military deception is also the oldest. The tale is laid out in the Aeneid, written by Virgil between 19-29 BC. In the story, the Greeks had tried to lay siege to Troy for more than 10 years, but their attempts had been fruitless. That changed when they began to utilize deception.
A Trojan Horse statue in Turkey, where Troy would have stood. (Photo Credit: Fredrik Posse / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In the Aeneid, the Greeks led the Trojans to believe they were giving up on their battle plans, and those in Troy thought the Greeks were leaving the area via the sea. To commemorate the conflict, the Greeks had sent a massive wooden horse. It was then brought in through the Trojan gates. At this point, the Greeks, including Odysseus, came out of the false horse and laid waste to the Trojan Army.
Quaker guns
The American Civil War also saw many instances of subterfuge. One of the most effective methods was the use of “Quaker guns,” false weapons dating back to the 1700s. The Quakers, a religious sect, were pacifists, and the name is used to denote the fact that, while the guns may have resembled real cannons, they were, in fact, just painted pieces of wood.
An example of an American Civil War-era Quaker gun. (Photo Credit: The Photograph History of the Civil War / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
During the Civil War, the Confederate Army used Quaker guns to make up for their shortage of artillery. They were positioned in fortifications and used to delay Union assaults. A prime example of their use was when Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston effectively used the fake cannons to draw Union soldiers in and allow his men to escape along the Rappahannock River.
Ghost Army
Some of the most interesting deception tactics of the Second World War were the result of the Ghost Army. Comprised of artists, photographers, sound engineers and architects, their goal was to trick the German Army into believing the Allies were stationed in areas where they weren’t.
Inflatable tank, modeled after the M4 Sherman. (Photo Credit: United States Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
To accomplish this, members of the 603rd Camouflage Engineers used rubber tanks and dummy planes. The fake tanks were often placed alongside real ones, but were given less-than-acceptable camouflage, so that the entire convoy was less likely to be targeted. Other visual deceptions included dressing up as other infantrymen and driving around in looping convoys, to give the appearance that an entire unit was on the move.
The Ghost Army also made use of sonic deception, with the help of the 3132 Signal Service Company. To do this, they recorded military sounds and noises, such as those made by tanks, infantrymen and artillery units. They also created “spoof radio,” where actors impersonated operators from real units.
