Actors Jonathan Majors and Glen Powell portray famed naval aviators Jesse L. Brown and Thomas J. Hudner Jr. in the upcoming Korean War film, Devotion. The movie has gained traction since the release of its official trailer, but what has caught the attention of military enthusiasts is the fact the production featured the use of aircraft from the 1950s.
Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)
Devotion features a number of aircraft that were flown during the Korean War, including a Douglas A-1 (AD) Skyraider, a Grumman F8F Bearcat, a number of Vought F4U Corsairs, a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 and a Sikorsky HO5S-1 helicopter. A modified Aero L-39 Albatros was also used as an air-to-air camera platform.
Speaking with Entertainment Weekly about the use of the aircraft, director J.D. Dillard, himself the son of a US Navy aviator, said he was dedicated to authenticity:
“When I first met the producers and told them that we had to [shoot] in-camera, the first problem is, well, where are the planes coming from? Finding 80-year-old planes that are still in working order, that can withstand the sort of stress that we’re going to put them through was certainly a task, but at the end of the day, we had a hangar full of them.
“It adds a level of realism to put our camera jet 10 feet away from these flying museums and lens them up for real with the beautiful backdrop of clouds at 10,000 feet.”
Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)
The film tells the story of the friendship between Jesse Brown, the Navy’s first African-American aviator, and Thomas Hudner. The latter was inspired to join the service following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor during the Second World War, while the former earned his wings in October 1948.
The pair were both assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 (VFA-32) onboard the USS Leyte (CV-32), flying F4U-4 Corsairs. During this time, Hudner proved to be a true friend of Brown’s, providing him support at a time when there were few Black servicemen in the Armed Forces.
They were deployed to Korea in October 1950. During the Battle of Chosin Reservoir in December 1950, Hudner and Brown were part of a group of pilots flying a search and destroy mission that also doubled as a probe into Chinese troop strength in the area. During the flight, Brown’s aircraft was hit by small arms fire from Chinese infantry hiding in the snow. This caused it to leak fuel, eventually leading to a crash that seriously injured the pilot.
Seeing his friend was in danger and wanting to help, Hudner purposefully crashed his own aircraft into the mountaintop. He, too, suffered injuries, but was later awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions. Sadly, Brown died from the wounds he’d suffered. At the time of his passing, he’d flown a total of 20 combat missions over Korea.
Jesse Brown and Thomas Hudner. (Photo Credit: 1. U.S. Navy / National Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 2. Jwillbur / Naval Historical Center Online Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Prior to portraying Brown in Devotion, Jonathan Majors had gained fame through his appearances in HBO’s Lovecraft Country and Disney’s Loki. In the interview with Entertainment Weekly, he shared that he was immediately interested in portraying the naval aviator in the film, as his family has a history of not only serving in the Navy, but with the US Army and Air Force, as well.
“I myself haven’t [served],” he told the publication. “But there’s something about the soldier archetype that’s always kind of been with me.”
He also shared his determination to experiencing flight in the same way pilots at the time did. “I call it the dog s**t reality,” he said. “You know, getting in the plane, trying to hold your lunch down, your breakfast down, sweating bullets out in the flight. I refused to take Dramamine because they didn’t have it [during the Korean War].
“I refused to come down. They were like, ‘Are you sick?’ ‘Yeah, I’m sick as a dog.’ ‘Do you want to come down?’ ‘No, I don’t want to go down. Keep going!’ Because you want to experience it.”
Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)
Devotion is slated to premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF), before debuting in theaters on November 23, 2022.
The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk was the first ever operational US Air Force stealth aircraft. It proved to be highly successful and effective, operating in a number of missions, including the US invasion of Panama and the Gulf War.
Despite its impressive record, the F-117 was put into early retirement after just under 25 years of service. The cause? It made a lot of sacrifices in exchange for stealth, eventually fading into the shadow of newer technologies and better aircraft.
The intention of the F-117 Nighthawk
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk flying over the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range, near Edwards Air Force Base, California. (Photo Credit: Thomas J. Pitsor / USAF / Getty Images)
The F-117 Nighthawk was designed in response to America’s urgent need for a jet fighter that could fly undetected. During the Vietnam War and the Yom Kippur War, Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) downed heavy bombers and other aircraft, as they were easily detectable on radar.
Lockheed was responsible for creating the stealth jet, which flew in 1981. Deliveries began the following year, with operational capacity reached in 1983. The F-117’s existence remained a secret until 1988, when the program became public knowledge. Even still, it was another two years before the aircraft made its first public appearance.
The F-117 was designed to reflect radar waves using angular panels and an external coating of radar-absorbent material. The angular design allowed for a reduction in the aircraft’s radar signature, with aerodynamic control provided through onboard computer units. It also boasted a small radar cross-section, and the combination made the aircraft nearly invisible to radar.
The F-117 Nighthawk had its fair share of limitations
The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attracted the greatest interest at the International Aerospace Exhibition at Berlin-Schöenefeld Airport in 2000. (Photo Credit: Wolfgang Kumm / Picture Alliance / Getty Images)
Unfortunately, the F-117 Nighthawk had limitations that forced it into retirement relatively quickly. To begin with, its ability to carry radar equipment was replaced with the capability to emit lower emissions and increase its stealth. This hindered the F-117’s effectiveness as a fighter.
The F-117 also had what developers called a “wing failure” problem. The design sacrificed aerodynamics for a smaller radar cross-section and that sometimes forced the wing and tail sections to come apart. The aircraft also had no afterburner and a lower engine thrust, so it couldn’t make hasty escapes in the case of a dogfight.
The rise of supercomputers capable of calculating radar cross-sections while also maintaining adequate aerodynamics allowed the US Air Force to create better aircraft, lessening the need for the F-117. The development of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor pretty much ended the F-117’s years in service, and even then, the F-22 has since been outshined by the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.
The aircraft wasn’t actually a fighter jet
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk flying over Death Valley, California. (Photo Credit: Jerod Harris / Getty Images)
The “F”-prefix designation of the F-117 Nighthawk is slightly misleading, as the aircraft isn’t a fighter jet. The designation is given to aircraft that are designed specifically for engaging other aircraft in battle – AKA, air-to-air combat. The F-117 didn’t fit this designation, as it was intended to engage ground targets in secrecy.
The F-117 didn’t carry any guns and only offered a payload of two 2,000-pound bombs. Its lack of radar also meant it couldn’t support radar-guided weapons. The only ones it could facilitate were infrared-guided or heat-seeking missiles, but the only way they could be fired was if the pilot spotted enemy aircraft with his or her own eyes.
Ultimately, the F-117 was not equipped for success if it found itself in a dogfight. Gen. Robert J. Dixon, who served at Tactical Air Command, explained the reason for the “F” designation was to entice the highest skilled and most capable pilots to join the new stealth program. A new attack aircraft just doesn’t have the same appeal as a new stealth fighter.
Loss during the Kosovo War
The remains of a Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk shot down during NATO’s airstrike assault over Yugoslavia in 1999. (Photo Credit: ANDREJ ISAKOVIC / AFP / Getty Images)
The issue with trying to make the F-117 Nighthawk a weapons-capable fighter was that the pilot would have to open the weapons bay door to fire the internal payload. Unfortunately, once its doors were open, the aircraft’s stealth was entirely compromised. That’s exactly what happened during the March-June 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.
When Lt. Col. Darrell Patrick “Dale” Zelko was piloting his F-117A during the Kosovo War, he opened his weapons bay door and exposed his position to an enemy commander who had secured a lock on his aircraft. Two surface-to-air missiles were fired from a Mikoyan MiG-29, striking the F-117 and forcing Zelko to eject. There was little else he could do.
The F-117 Nighthawk enters retirement
Lockheed F-117 Nighthawks line up on the runway at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia prior to their deployment to King Khalid International Airport, Saudi Arabia as part of Operation Desert Storm. (Photo Credit: Mark Reinstein / CORBIS / Getty Images)
While the last F-117 Nighthawk was delivered in 1990, the aircraft still saw action during the Gulf War. During Operation Desert Storm, F-117s were credited with having flown approximately 1,300 sorties and hitting 1,600 high-value targets in Iraq. The aircraft was also flown during the breakup of Yugoslavia, where the aforementioned F-117 was downed, and in the early stages of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.
By 2008, all F-117s were completely retired after just under 25 years in service. Following their retirement, Operation Nighthawk Landing was successfully implemented to permanently install an F-117 Nighthawk for public display at the Ronald Reagan Library in Simi Valley, California.
Following the Second World War and the creation of the US Air Force, the US Army was in need of a new observation and liaison aircraft. This led to the development of what became known as the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog, which was flown extensively by the American forces in both Korea and Vietnam.
The US Army’s need for a new aircraft
Following the US Army Air Forces separation from the US Army in 1947, the latter was without a much-needed air support wing. This led it to conduct a search for a single-engine, two-seat monoplane that could perform a number of roles on the battlefield, such as adjusting artillery fire, light scouting, observation and liaison.
It also needed the ability to handle at low altitudes and would preferably be made from all-metal components, as the fabric-covered liaison aircraft from World War II had relatively short service lives.
US Army Cessna L-19A Bird Dog of the 21st Reconnaissance Airplane Company (RAC), near Hoi An, Republic of Vietnam. (Photo Credit: reivax / Flickr CC BY-SA 2.0)
After receiving the specifications, the Cessna Aircraft Company submitted the Cessna Model 305A. Capable of a maximum speed of 150 MPH and a cruising speed of 115 MPH, and with a range of 530 miles, it was exactly what the Army was looking for. A contract was awarded for the production of the aircraft, which was given the designation of L-19A Bird Dog, and over the course of nine years, 3,431 were produced.
Service in Korea and Vietnam
As soon as it left the production line, the Cessna L-19A Bird Dog was deployed to Korea, where it flew for the US Army and Marine Corps from 1950-53. It served in a number of roles during the conflict, including training, frontline communications, artillery spotting and use as a MEDEVAC vehicle.
The Cessna L-19A Bird Dog was designated the OE-2 under the US Marine Corps. (Photo Credit: Bill Larkins / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
By the time it was deployed for service in Vietnam in 1962, the L-19A had been re-designated the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog. As in Korea, it was flown by the Army and the Marine Corps, and also saw use by the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) and clandestine forward air controllers (FACs). Its capabilities as a short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft and its ability to fly at low altitudes and speed also afforded it use by the US Air Force.
In general, the O-1 was used for reconnaissance, radio relay, target acquisition, convoy escort, forward air control and artillery adjustment. Its maneuverability, visibility capabilities and quiet nature made it valuable to ground units, and the addition of eight unguided white-phosphorus air-to-surface rockets under the wings allowed it to engage in offensive action, when needed.
Cessna O-1 Bird Dog with a damaged wing, Bu Prang Special Forces Camp, South Vietnam. (Photo Credit: David Turnley / CORBIS / VCG / Getty Images)
Despite its success, the O-1 had its fair share of issues. Its slow speed made it vulnerable to enemy fire and, compared to newer aircraft, it had a smaller range and payload. While these problems led the Air Force to eventually switch to the twin engine North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco and Cessna O-2 Skymaster, the Army retained its fleet throughout the Vietnam War, with 11 Reconnaissance Airplane Companies (RACs) deployed.
The Cessna O-1 Bird Dog moves into civilian use
The Cessna O-1 Bird Dog was officially retired by the US military in 1974, with the remaining units sold as surplus. Many of the aircraft that had served with the Air Force were turned over to the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) for domestic search and rescue (SAR) operations.
Unfortunately, very few of the CAP pilots had experience as military aviators, meaning they encountered a number of issues when attempting to fly the aircraft. As a result, the O-1 was eventually replaced by the Cessna 172 and 182.
Republic of Vietnam Air Force-flown Cessna O-1 Bird Dog landing on the flight deck of the USS Midway (CV-41) during Operation Frequent Wind. (Photo Credit: USS Midway / Naval Aviation News / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Following their service with the Civil Air Patrol, a number of O-1s were sold to private aviators or delivered to museums, where they remain on display. Others were purchased by glider clubs across the United States for use as towing aircraft.
Known as the fastest manned rocket aircraft ever flown, the North American X-15 is an engineering marvel. It made the first manned flights to the edge of outer space and was the first aircraft to reach hypersonic speeds – that’s over five times the speed of sound. These accomplishments not only solidified its place in aviation history, but also aided in the development of a number of NASA spaceflight programs.
Development of the North American X-15
The North American X-15 was the culmination of years of work, which began in the 1940s with the Bell X-1 and continued into the ’50s. It was based on a concept study conducted for NASA‘s predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the results of which were passed onto both the US Air Force and Navy in July 1954.
The purpose for the new aircraft was for it to accurately test the conditions future astronauts would face as the United States furthered its exploration of space. North American Aviation was tasked with designing the airframe, while Reaction Motors was charged with providing the engines, which would allow it to reach the speeds intended for such trials.
The North American X-15 was the result of years of research into rocket-powered aircraft, which had previously led to the development of the Bell X-1 in the mid-1940s. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The X-15 was designed to be launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress mothership. Two of the bombers were used throughout the aircraft’s service – an NB-52A known as the High and Mighty One and an NB-52B named Balls 8. This would ensure the X-15 could reach an adequate base speed (500 MPH) and altitude (8.5 miles above the earth), from which its engines would engage and allow it to travel on its own steam.
The first X-15 flight took place in June 1959, and just a few months later the aircraft was officially introduced into service.
North American X-15 specs
Only three North American X-15s were produced during its years of service. The first was a single-seat, mid-wing monoplane, which featured two XLR11 liquid-propellant rocket engines capable of producing 16,000 pounds-force of thrust. These were later replaced by the XLR99, which generated a whopping 57,000 pounds-force of thrust.
Only three North American X-15s were produced over the aircraft’s service. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The aircraft’s fuselage featured rear fairings and wedge-fin stabilizers. Parts of it were covered in a heat-resistant nickel alloy known as “Inconel X,” to protect against the effects of flying so close to the edge of the earth. To keep pilots safe from such harsh conditions, the cabin was isolated from the exterior of the structure and made from aluminum.
To ensure the X-15 could be controlled in an environment without enough air for aerodynamic flight control surfaces, the Reaction Control System (RCS) was used, which could be controlled in one of two ways. If three joysticks were present in the cockpit, then the RCS was controlled by one of them. If there was only one, then an MH-96 flight control system was used, which combined those related to the aerodynamics and rockets.
Once launched from the B-52, the X-15’s rocket-powered engines would provide thrust for the first 80-120 seconds of flight. After this, it would glide at 200 MPH for between eight and 12 minutes, before landing. A thick wedge tail design and side panels were used to keep the X-15 stable at the hypersonic speeds it reached, but also produced a significant amount of base drag as the aircraft slowed.
The North American X-15 was launched from a Boeing B-52 Statofortress. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
As with a number of other aircraft, the X-15 also featured an ejection seat. It was designed to operate at 120,000 feet and at speeds of up to Mach 4. Upon ejection, fins were deployed, which were used until the pilots had reached a safe enough speed and altitude to deploy their parachutes.
Influence on the future of spaceflight
Upon its development, the North American X-15 was placed in a number of different scenarios. Over its nearly 10 years of service, it conducted 199 flights with 12 pilots: five from NASA, one from the Navy, five from the Air Force and one from North American Aviation. One of those to fly the aircraft was famed astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon.
Information gleamed from the 199 flights made by the North American X-15 allowed NASA to develop a number of important spaceflight missions. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The X-15 set a number of speed and altitude records over the course of the 1960s, including the still-unbroken one for the highest speed ever recorded by a crewed, powered aircraft. Air Force Maj. William J. “Pete” Knight was in the cockpit on October 3, 1967 when he hit speeds of up to 4,520 MPH – Mach 6.72 – while at an altitude of 102,100 feet.
Of the pilots who flew the X-15, eight met the Air Force’s space flight criterion by exceeding the altitude of 50 miles (264,000 feet), which qualified them as astronauts. Those who were members of the service were given their military astronaut wings, but as NASA’s pilots were considered civilians, they weren’t granted the same honor until 2005.
Astronaut Neil Armstrong was among those who flew the North American X-15. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The X-15 was officially retired from service in December 1968, with the program deemed a success. The information gleamed from the nearly-200 flights helped NASA not only develop its Space Shuttle program, but also the famed Apollo (1961-72), Mercury (1958-63) and Gemini (1961-66) projects.
Today, the remaining X-15s can be found on display at the National Museum of the US Air Force in Dayton, Ohio and the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC.
The North American P-82 Twin Mustang may be one of the strangest and most remarkable piston-engine aircraft ever produced. Its connected wing and double fuselages look like something straight out of someone’s imagination, but the aircraft was actually a very reliable long-range bomber escort that could also be employed as a fighter, long-range reconnaissance aircraft, night fighter, attack bomber, rocket fighter and interceptor.
The development of jet technology forced the P-82 into retirement, but its short service life was filled with a number of accomplishments.
The twin-fuselage was the solution
Photo Credit: Camerique / Getty Images
During the Second World War, the United States was in need of a long-range, high-altitude bomber escort for the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. Until 1943, there had been no such aircraft that could accommodate these long-range requirements, so one needed to be designed. How would they extend the range of one aircraft to 2,300 miles? Combine two into one, of course.
The North American P-82 Twin Mustang combined two elongated North American P-51 Mustangs side-by-side, connected by a center wing. The unique frame had two fuselages to meet the long-range requirements of the US Air Force. Two aircraft meant twice the range of one standard escort, and despite the P-82’s bulky weight of around 24,000 pounds, it was fast and nimble, capable of reaching speeds of over 475 MPH.
Three variations of the P-82 were developed, and the remarkable aircraft saw its first flight on June 15, 1945. The Air Force ordered 250 of them in 1947, and the aircraft eventually became the standard long-range, high-altitude escort fighter for the service.
Who flew the North American P-82 Twin Mustang?
Photo Credit: US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
With two fuselages, you may be wondering who actually flew the P-82 Twin Mustang. In the earliest variation of the aircraft, known as the F-82, the two fuselages were manned by two pilots who were both equipped with the necessary equipment to maneuver it. This way, the two could interchange their roles (piloting and sleeping) during long flights.
In the later models, the left fuselage became the pilot’s cockpit, equipped with the normal flight and engine instruments. The right became the radar operator’s cockpit. This was equipped with the necessary instruments, as well as the basic controls for pilot relief and emergency operations.
A record-breaking flight
North American P-82 Twin Mustang known as Betty Jo. (Photo Credit: Alvintrusty / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
In a test of the long-range capabilities of the P-82 Twin Mustang, a single aircraft flew non-stop from Hickam Field, Hawaii to New York City’s LaGuardia Airport in 1947. The distance was more than 5,000 miles, and the aircraft began its journey on February 27.
Lt. Col. Robert E. Thacker, along with co-pilot Lt. John M. Ard, flew the P-82, named Betty Jo, across the US. The flight took just over 14 hours to complete, at an average speed of around 347 MPH, and holds the record for the longest non-stop flight of a piston-engined/propellor-driven military fighter aircraft.
The North American P-82 Twin Mustang was a killer over Korea
Photo Credit: FPG / Getty Images
World War II ended before the P-82 Twin Mustang entered production, meaning the project was under threat of being cancelled. However, the lack of sufficient jet aircraft technology and the rising tensions of the Cold War called for this final piston-engine fighter to be ordered into production.
Some P-82s were then stationed in Japan and Okinawa, and were actually the first to respond to the Communist invasion of South Korea in 1950. Within hours, P-82s from the US Air Force’s 68th Fighter Squadron were flying combat patrols over the 38th Parallel. The next day, two drove a formation of fighters away from the harbor at Inchon.
Not even 24 hours later, a formation of P-82s engaged and destroyed three North Korean warplanes, claiming the first air-to-air kills of the war.
The North American P-82 Twin Mustang is on display
Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
By late 1951, jet fighters began to dominate the Korean War. As a result, the P-82 Twin Mustang as pulled from frontline service. Variants that were equipped for cold weather conditions continued to fly for the Alaskan Air Command for a couple of years, but by November 1953, the aircraft was officially retired.
Almost all P-82s were scrapped following their retirement. However, five still exist. Three sit on display in museums around the US, including the record-holding Betty Jo at the National Museum of the US Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. The other two are being restored.
In fact, one was even put up for sale in 2020 for a mere $12,000,000. If you’ve got the cash and someone willing to co-pilot, flying a remarkable P-82 Twin Mustang could be a dream come true.
During the Cold War, the US Air Force was in need of a new interceptor aircraft to combat Soviet bombers. The Northrop F-89 Scorpion was the answer, and a modified version became the first and only aircraft to fly and detonate a nuclear-tipped rocket. The power and danger of nuclear weapons became understood with time, meaning just one of the F-89J’s nuclear rockets was ever detonated.
Development of the Northrop F-89 Scorpion
Northrop F-89D Scorpion. (Photo Credit: Isham, Marty / United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Northrop F-89 Scorpion was designed as an all-weather, two-seater, jet-powered fighter-type interceptor aircraft. It was developed for use by the US Air Force as a night fighter, to replace the propellor-driven Northrop P-61 Black Widow and the North American P-82 Twin Mustang. The F-89 was commissioned in 1945, and the first prototype, the XP-89, flew in 1948. By September 1950, the aircraft was officially introduced as the Air Force’s newest dedicated interceptor.
The F-89 was fitted to house a radar operator in the rear seat to help the pilot locate, intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. The aircraft had a cruising speed of 465 MPH and a maximum speed of 627 MPH, with a range of 1,600 miles. With a wingspan of over 59 feet, the F-89 was an impressive interceptor that offered a lot of promise, and Northrop built 1,050.
Modifications to create the Northrop F-89J Scorpion
Northrop F-89J Scorpion on display at the National Museum of the US Air Force. (Photo Credit: Greg Goebe / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
Multiple variations of the F-89 were developed during its years of production. Models -B through -D were built, while -E through -G were paper studies only. Aircraft production of the F-89H variant sported redesigned wingtip pods, but it was the F-89D that became the major production model, with 682 built.
The F-89D was further modified to become the F-89J, in what was called Project Ding Dong. The F-89J was intended and built to support the mounting of two MB-1 (later AIR-2) Genie nuclear-tipped air-to-air rockets under its wings, as well as four Falcon air-to-air missiles. A total of 350 were built, and it became the first operational combat-level aircraft to be outfitted with air-to-air nuclear weaponry.
Operation Plumbbob
Launch of an MB-1 Genie nuclear-tipped air-to-air rocket from a Northrop F-89J Scorpion during Operation Plumbbob. (Photo Credit: National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
From May to October 1957, the US conducted a series of nuclear tests at the Nevada Test Site. Dubbed Operation Plumbbob, it featured 29 explosions (27 of which produced a nuclear yield) and contributed to the development of warheads for intermediate and intercontinental range missiles, as well as those used for anti-submarine and air defense purposes.
On July 19, 1957, an F-89J Scorpion was flown over Yucca Flat. Five Air Force officers and a civilian defense photographer watched as the aircraft flew overhead, equipped with two 820-pound MB-1 Genie rockets topped with W25 warheads. Following a countdown, pilot Capt. Eric W. Hutchison and radar intercept officer Capt. Alfred C. Barbee shot one of the rockets forward. After its release, the aircraft turned around and flew in the opposite direction.
After 12 seconds, the MB-1 Genie rocket had traveled six miles, and the fire control system onboard the F-89J transmitted a radio signal to detonate the warhead’s fuse. The rocket then erupted into a nuclear fireball. The strength of the explosion was estimated to be one-tenth of that of the nuclear bomb Little Boy, which was dropped over Hiroshima.
An MB-1 Genie rocket was never detonated again
Test of an MB-1 Genie nuclear-tipped air-to-air rocket, July 19, 1957. (Photo Credit: National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site Office / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki proved it only took one nuclear weapon to decimate an entire city. The destruction was unimaginable, and the after-effects of the nuclear radiation plagued survivors.
Despite the obvious magnitude of danger surrounding nuclear weapons, their use was not yet considered taboo; many military planners believed they’d be mounted and employed on all military vehicles. This gave way to the modified F-89J. However, precision targeting technologies were still being developed and the idea of shooting a nuclear rocket in the general direction of an enemy aircraft was too dangerous and messy.
An MB-1 Genie nuclear rocket was never detonated again following the test on July 19, 1957. All six of the observers at the testing site were later diagnosed with cancer – however, it isn’t clear if their illnesses were the direct result of their exposure to the detonation.
The F-89J served with the Air Defense Command, later renamed the Aerospace Defense Command (ADC), until 1959 and with the Air National Guard for another decade. Over time, support for the aircraft diminished, leading to its retirement in 1969.
The Douglas A-1 Skyraider was not only an integral aircraft used following WWII, but it was also a deadly weapon capable of eviscerating the enemy into nothing more than a grease spot – making it one of the best attack planes of all time.
The A-1 (formerly known as the AD Skyraider) is a single-seat attack aircraft that saw service from 1946 until the 1980s. The piston-engined, American-designed plane’s ability to carry large amounts of weapons over a long period of time made it especially powerful during the Southeast Asia War. It provided close air support to ground forces, escorted helicopters during rescue missions, and attacked enemy supply lines.
A Douglas A-1 Skyraider drops two napalm bombs over Vietnam, 1967 – cropped from the original. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / United States Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
With a maximum speed of 322 miles per hour, a range of 1,316 miles, and an armament complete with an array of bombs, rockets, cannons, and guns the A-1 was extremely successful at navigating guerrilla war tactics in the Korean War. However, it was ultimately phased out in favor of more advanced jet aircraft.
Development of the Skyraider
The Douglas Skyraider was first developed during WWII to meet the needs of the US Navy – which had realized that carrier air wings needed to change due to new weapons advancements. Designed by Ed Heinemann from the Douglas Aircraft Company, the first A-1 prototype, XBT2D-1, was ordered in July 1944.
The Douglas XBT2D-1 Skyraider prototype, circa 1946. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
By December 1946, the XBT2D-1 was re-designated the AD-1 and put into production. The Skyraider, also affectionately called “the Spad” after the WWI French biplane, combined the stamina of larger planes with the maneuverability of smaller aircraft.
Equipped with fifteen hardpoints, it could carry a large amount of ordnance over a longer period of time, while still easily maneuverable at low speeds. Unlike faster fighter planes like Vought F4U Corsair, the A-1 was well suited to ground attacks.
A U. S. Air Force Douglas A-1E Skyraider armed with six LAU-3 rocket launchers in Vietnam. (Photo Credit: Pictures From History / Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
Before production ended in 1957, Douglas manufactured a total of 3,180 Skyraiders in 28 variations for a variety of situations like carrier-based aircraft, attack bombing, reconnaissance, airborne early warnings, and search missions.
The Korean War saw 128 planes lost
The first Skyraiders arrived at the Korean Peninsula in 1950, and by 1955 29 Skyraider squadrons were serving the U.S. Navy in Korea. In 1962, the aircraft was re-designated A-1D/A-1J. The A-1 became a valuable asset to the United States at the start of the Korean War thanks to its impressive weapons load and flying time which surpassed most other jets at the time – a whopping 10 hours of flight at a time.
A U.S. Navy Douglas AD-4 Skyraider of attack squadron VA-195 Dambusters taking off the aircraft carrier USS Princeton (CV-37) during the Korean War, circa 1952. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
On June 16, 1953, Marine Corps pilots Major George H. Linnemeier and CWO Vernon S. Kramer shot down a Soviet-built Polikarpov Po-2 biplane, making it the only documented Skyraider victory of the Korean War. During the entirety of the war, AD Skyraiders were only flown by U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps pilots.
Unfortunately, there were more losses than victories when it came to the Skyraider’s role in Korea. By the end of the war, 128 AD Skyraider planes were lost – 101 in combat and 27 due to operational issues. The operational issues largely stemmed from the overwhelming power of the aircraft, which were prone to accidents when performing landings on aircraft carriers.
By accidentally using too much throttle, an AD pilot could easily over-rotate the propeller and enter a fatal “torque roll” that plummeted them into the sea.
The Skyraider thrived during the Vietnam War
U.S. Air Force Skyraiders were later assigned to the 1st Air Commando Squadron in Vietnam in 1964. These aircraft were modified from the older versions used in Korea to help support search and rescue missions. Supporting special operations along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, Skyraiders aided ground forces by spraying defoliant or aiding in the extraction of troops from enemy territories.
View of a Douglas A-1E Skyraider attack plane as it escorts a Sikorsky CH-3C rescue helicopter, Vietnam, 1966. (Photo Credit: PhotoQuest / Getty Images)
The most famous squadron of Skyraiders, under the call sign “Sandy,” supported search and rescue missions by air. The A-1’s ability to fly low and slow was perfect for locating missing persons over a longer period of time without needing to refuel, unlike other jet planes at the time. The Sandies held back enemy fire while helicopters went in to save downed personnel.
The immense firepower of the Skyraider was also a key asset during the Vietnam War. According to Boeing, the A-1 was the only aircraft of its time capable of delivering 8,000 pounds of bombs with impressive precision over difficult targets like dams and bridges.
By 1960, the United States began to transfer over some of its A-1 Skyraiders to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF). By 1968, the RVNAF had received over 150 Skyraiders. Potential Vietnamese pilots were sent to NAS Corpus Christi in Texas to receive flight training on the Skyraider, which was a primary aircraft used by the Vietnamese throughout the war.
Douglas A-1 Skyraider (AD-4NA) in flight, owned by the Heritage Flight Museum. (Photo Credit: Clemens Vasters / Flickr / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY 2.0)
When the United States ended its direct involvement with Vietnam, all remaining Skyraiders were handed over to the RVNAF by 1973. By this point, many RVNAF pilots were better trained to fly the A-1 Skyraider, clocking in thousands of flight hours over the course of the war.
Is the Skyraider still the best?
The United Kingdom, France, and Sweden have also acquired Douglas A-1 Skyraiders. The United Kingdom retired the aircraft in 1962, while it remained in limited French and Swedish service until the 1970s.
Even though the lifespan of the Douglas A-1 Skyraider was relatively short-lived, it is still remembered as one of the best aircraft ever made. Former U.S. Marine Corps Captain William C. Smith told HistoryNet he wasn’t impressed when he first laid eyes on the AD Skyraider. “After flying Corsairs, I thought it looked like a great big airplane with a little bitty engine,” he said.
An AE-1 Skyraider in the RVNAF colors. (Photo Credit: Airwolfhound / Flickr / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 4.0)
It wasn’t until Smith was given a four-hour introduction to the Skyraider before entering combat in the Korean War that he realized its potential: “My original opinion of the plane did a complete 180,” Smith said.
“When you fly combat, you need to have confidence in your airplane, and after that first week there was no question in my mind that our ADs were the best planes in the world for the job expected of us,” he added. “Even after all these years of progress, I believe the AD is still the best airplane ever made for close-in attack option…better, in fact, than anything flying today.”
As a result of the majority of the world’s powers participating in the Second World War, there were near-constant advancements in weapons technology. When the conflict came to an end and the Cold War reared its head, there was a continued need for this kind of development. In an attempt to one-up the Soviet Union, the United States launched the Fighter Conveyor (FICON) Project.
Bombers were too big for reconnaissance missions
In the post-war period, Boeing B-29 Superfortresses were converted into spy aircraft. (Photo Credit: Department of Defense / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The primary difference between the Cold War and the Second World War was that the former was more about reconnaissance than actual battles. The US was flush with large bombers that played prominent roles during WWII, and the decision was made to refit them for different duties.
Boeing B-29 Superfortresses were modified to serve as photographic reconnaissance platforms. There was a benefit to this, as the bombers had tremendous range and could hold very large cameras. The Convair B-36 Peacemaker was also used for spy missions, as was the RB-36 variant.
In the early days, the RB-36 was an excellent option for reconnaissance. It could fly at altitudes jet fighters couldn’t, allowing it to easily fly above other countries. The strategic bomber could also maneuver more successfully than Russian fighters.
The need for a new idea
Project Tip-Tow saw two Republic EF-84D Thunderjets attached to the wings of a modified Boeing ETB-29A Superfortress. (Photo Credit: US Air Force / USAF Aeronautical Systems Center History Office / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The advantages of the RB-36 Peacemaker didn’t last forever. Like America, the Soviet Union was regularly improving its aircraft, and by the early to mid 1950s had developed interceptor jets that could reach higher altitudes and maneuver just as well as American aircraft.
Multiple ideas were formulated to improve reconnaissance aircraft. One, dubbed Project Tip-Tow, arose following a 1940s test flight featuring a Douglas C-47A Skytrain and a Culver Q-14B Cadet that were attached together. Project Tip-Tow used a modified ETB-29A Superfortress with two Republic EF-84Ds attached to its wings. The idea was that the bomber could turn off its engines and rely on the fuel of the smaller fighter-bombers, thus increasing its range.
The project saw reasonable success, but the US military continued to work on other ideas. This included the much-later Project Tom-Tom, which saw two FF-84Fs attached to the wings of a JRB-36F. Similar to Project Tow-Tow and Tom-Tom’s predecessor, the Fighter Conveyor (FICON) Project, this saw some success, but the decision was ultimately made to not move forward with it, after it was agreed the concept posed too much of a risk to pilots.
Fighter Conveyor (FICON) Project
The Republic RF-84K Thunderflash was used as part of the Fighter Conveyor (FICON) Project. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / History and Units of the United States Air Forces In Europe / GHJ Scharringa, European Aviation Historical Society / United States National Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In the early 1950s, the US Air Force came up with the FICON Project. In practice, the larger B-36 Peacemaker would transport the smaller F-84 Thunderjet that by itself might not have enough range to reach its target. Once in the vicinity of the target, the F-84 would drop its payload, a nuclear bomb, before returning to the B-36 and transported back to base.
The smaller aircraft were placed in the bomb bay
Under the FICON Project, a smaller aircraft was attached to a larger one and launched via a trapeze. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / National Museum of the U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Under the FICON Project, the Air Force created a trapeze system. An F-84E Thunderjet was outfitted with a retractable hook in front of the cockpit, which allowed it to be attached to an GRB-36 Peacemaker. The cockpit, the fuselage spine and the tail fin would sit inside of the larger bomber, while the rest would be positioned underneath. This increased the GRB-36’s drag and reduced its range, but meant the F-84E’s pilot could leave his aircraft while it was attached.
The Air Force conducted a number of tests with this in the early 1950s, with the idea being that the superior flying ability of the F-84 would allow it to work through heavily defended targets to drop its payload. The jets with the hook system were later replaced by the faster Republic F-84F Thunderstreak and, later, the RF-84K Thunderflash, thus changing the FICON Project’s focus from attack to tactical reconnaissance.
Legacy of the US Air Force’s FICON Project
The Republic RF-84K Thunderflash was intended to maneuver through enemy lines to drop its payload. (Photo Credit: USAF / National Museum of the U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The FICON Project saw limited service with the Strategic Air Command from 1955-56. Tests showed the idea behind the system was tactically sound and worked, in theory. However, it wasn’t perfect. Simple things like adverse weather systems could make the practice unreliable, and the RF-84K Thunderflashes greatly reduced the GBR-36D Peacemaker’s ground clearance.
Re-hooking the RF-84Ks back to the larger bombers also proved incredibly difficult, even for the most experienced of pilots. The FICON Project was eventually cancelled in 1956 due to these issues, as well as the B-36 being made obsolete. The introduction of the Lockheed U-2 Dragon Lady also played a part.
The last flight occurred in April of that year. While the majority of the RF-84Ks were scrapped, some conducted reconnaissance missions with the hook apparatus still attached. Today, only three remain and can be seen at the Wings Over the Rockies Airspace Museum in Denver, Colorado; the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio; and the Planes of Fame “static lot” in Chino, California.
When World War II broke out, countries wanted their troops to have the best equipment possible. However, this was made difficult by a variety of factors: manufacturing time, scarcity of materials and the inability to properly test prototypes. The Italian Macchi C.202 Folgore experienced a number of these issues. Despite that, it became one of the true workhorses of the conflict.
Origins of the Macchi C.202 Folgore
Production on the Macchi C.202 Folgore began in the late 1930s. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In the 1930s, the Italian military instructed aircraft manufacturers to develop new models with radial engines. Over the course of the decade, this style became obsolete and had difficulty powering the aircraft of the day. However, since they had been instructed to focus on this one type of engine, the country’s manufacturers had failed to develop more powerful ones.
Toward the end of 1939, Alfa Romeo was tasked with producing an engine for Macchi Aeronautica. The latter company grew tired of waiting for the parts and decided to order a single DB 601Aa engine from the German company, Daimler Benz. This led Macchi’s chief of design Mario Castoldi to pair the engine and a new fuselage with the body of a C.200.
The Macchi C.202 Folgore rapidly went into production
Pilots raved about the Macchi C.202 Folgore‘s high rate of speed and solid construction. (Photo Credit: San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Italy entered the Second World War in the summer of 1940. There was now a much faster push to get aircraft in the air. Testing on the Macchi C.202 Folgore began that August. The prototypes soon found themselves in the town of Guidonia, where they were flown by the country’s top test pilots, who raved about the aircraft both for its incredible speed and solid construction.
While there was significant excitement about the C.202, its construction was no easy feat. It had been designed in a way that made mass production incredibly difficult. Some of these problems were solved by transferring production to Società Italiana Ernesto Breda, a Milan-based manufacturer, but production was still constrained by the limited number of engines available.
Taking to the sky during the Siege of Malta
During the Siege of Malta, the Macchi C.202 Folgore proved to be superior to the aircraft flown by the British. (Photo Credit: Umeyou / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Macchi C.202 Folgore was different from past Italian aircraft, as it featured a German-made engine and a more streamlined fuselage. It was known among pilots for being very well-made. The only complaints were that it wasn’t as well armed as other aircraft and that the 12.7 mm Breda-SAFAT machine guns and ammunition storage made it too heavy. Some also complained that its radios and oxygen systems were unreliable.
The C.202 first saw action during the Siege of Malta in September 1941, and soon proved to be superior to the Hawker Hurricanes flown by the British. Along with conducting fighter operations, the aircraft also performed aerial reconnaissance and ground attack runs. While the Allies were successful in Malta, the Italians had managed to inflict some damage. That being said, the lack of arms on the C.202 meant the aircraft hadn’t caused as much damage as originally hoped.
North Africa Campaign and deployment to the Eastern Front
Italian pilots were instructed to fly like those in the Luftwaffe during the fight for North Africa. (Photo Credit: fotografo ufficiale / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In late November 1941, the Italians joined the Germans in North Africa to face off against several other countries. The pilots flying the Macchi C.202 Folgore were instructed to do so in a similar fashion to the Luftwaffe, which meant they had to attempt to destroy grounded enemy aircraft while also fighting opponents using “dive and zoom” tactics. One of their most successful flights was during the Battle of Bir Hakeim, where the Italians went up against pilots from the Desert Air Force (DAF).
The vast majority of the C.202s were sent back to defend Sicily and the Italian mainland in April 1942. Over the course of the next year and a half, the aircraft flew in a number of missions against the Allied forces, including Operation Harpoon, fighting Sea Hurricanes and, later, Supermarine Spitfires. They were also sent to the Eastern Front to launch attacks against the Red Army.
In September 1943, the Allies and Italy signed the Armistice of Cassibile, essentially ended the country’s role in the Second World War. With the conflict coming to an end, there was little need for the C.202 – and there weren’t all that many left. At the time the armistice was signed, Italy possessed 186 units, but only around 100 were operable.
Legacy of the Macchi C.202 Folgore
A surviving Macchi C.202 Folgore can be seen at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. (Photo Credit: Smithsonian Institution / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
The Macchi C.202 Folgore was given a second life as a trainer aircraft for Italian pilots and stayed in service until 1951. Outside of Italy, a number of other countries were in possession of it. The Luftwaffe had 12, while Croatia flew the aircraft in interceptor roles against Allied bombers.
A few models of the C.202 can still be seen in museums. One currently sits on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, while another can be found at the Italian Air Force Museum, near Bracciano.
The US military may soon be in possession of a new spacecraft capable of transporting troops to space and low Earth orbit within just three hours, following the signing of a research and development contract between the US Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) and Sierra Space, the company behind the Dream Chaser spaceplane.
Photo Credit: Ken Ulbrich / NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
The deal, which was announced on September 8, 2022, allows for Sierra Space and USTRANSCOM to develop and investigate industry capabilities for immediately employment. Using the Dream Chaser spaceplane, the aim is to move troops and supplies anywhere in the world in just a fraction of the time it would take traditional transportation.
Speaking about the contract, Sierra Space CEO Tom Vice said, “Today’s agreement with the United States Transportation Command gives Sierra Space the unique opportunity to provide hypersonic point-to-point solutions to our government customers.
“Through Dream Chaser, the world’s first commercial spaceplane, the Shooting Star cargo module and other projects, we are focused on providing unique ultra-high-speed, heavy payload solutions to the Department of Defense for logistics and personnel movement requirements. We plan to leverage these technologies anywhere on the globe within three hours.”
Sierra Space has been developing the Dream Chaser for a number of years, basing its design on NASA‘s HL-20 Personnel Launch System spaceplane concept. After being acquired by Orbitec LLC in 2014, the company announced it would be veering away from its hybrid rocket engine design to a cluster of Orbitec’s Vortex engines, which use nitrous oxide and propane as propellants. The first drop test for the spaceplane occurred in 2017, with the official launch anticipated to happen in 2023.
According to the company, the 30-foot Dream Chaser is “the ultimate space vehicle.” The first-ever winged commercial spaceplane, it has room for seven crew members and can accommodate over 12,000 pounds of equipment. When paired with the Shooting Star cargo module, it can transport an additional 10,000 pounds of supplies.
“Designed for high reusability, this vehicle reduces overall cost, providing quick turnarounds between missions,” Sierra Space writes on its official website. “The ability to liftoff on top of multiple launch vehicles and land at a wide variety of runways makes Dream Chaser a flexible option for reliable transportation.”
Once operational, NASA plans to have the spaceplane complete at least seven cargo service missions to the International Space Station (ISS). With the addition of a robotic arm, it will also be able to boost satellites higher into orbit and draw them in for maintenance and repairs.
Photo Credit: Ken Ulbrich / NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Through use with the military, the aim is to support both combat missions and non-combat activities, including medical missions and humanitarian relief. Since the Dream Chaser’s development, both the US Air Force and USTRANSCOM have shown interest in the spacecraft, to supplement typical air, surface and land transportation methods.
According to an Air Force statement released in October 2020, the primary constraints that need to be addressed are volume, weight and restrictions when it comes to launch operations and recovery. However, if these issues can be overcome, the hope is a spaceplane will join the military’s fleet.
The statement reads, “As industry advances to overcome these challenges as well as increase its pace of launches to decrease costs, a space transportation capability to put a crucial cargo quickly on target at considerable distances makes it an attractive alternative.”
Lt. Col. Nirav Lad, principal investigator for Space Transportation Cooperative Research and Development Agreements, USTRANSCOM’s Strategic Plans, Policy, and Logistics Directorate, added that “the potential of space transportation to deliver Defense Department cargo anywhere in the world in an hour provides an additional option to complement USTRANSCOM’s strategic sealift and airlift capabilities.”
Photo Credit: Sierra Nevada Space Systems / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0
The US military has signed a number of agreements in 2022 to address its point-to-point transportation needs. This includes a $102 million contract with SpaceX for rocket deliveries of cargo and humanitarian equipment and another with Rocket Lab for use of its Electron booster.
