Author: trameditor

A number of machine guns saw action during the First World War. While the Vickers, Maxim and Lewis guns are likely the ones that come to mind, there’s another that stands out simply because of how unusual its design was: the Schwarzlose MG. Developed for the Austro-Hungarian Army, this machine gun not only saw use by infantrymen, but was adapted to feature aboard ships and on aircraft, and was even installed in military fortifications.

Development of the Schwarzlose MG

Schwarzlose MG being manned by soldiers stationed in the Ukrainian People’s Republic, 1918. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Schwarzlose MG, also known as the Maschinengewehr M, was designed in 1904 by Prussian firearms designer Andreas Wilhelm Schwarzlose, who rose to fame for developing a blowback-operated machine gun. The weapon entered production in 1905 as the M1905, and was steadily improved upon as the years went on.

The Schwarzlose used by soldiers during World War I entered production in 1908 and was manufactured by Steyr Arms and Fegyver-és-Gépgyár (FÉG) for a decade. In 1918, active sales of the weapon ended with the close of the conflict.

Schwarzlose MG specs

Schwarzlose MG on display at a museum. (Photo Credit: OlliFoolish / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

The Schwarzlose MG was a belt-fed, water-cooled machine gun that resembled those within the Maxim family. However, it was given a much simpler design and function, meaning it was inexpensive to manufacture, allowing for the necessary quantities to be produced during the First World War.

While resembling the Maxim, the Schwarzlose was unusual in that it employed a delayed blowback mechanism that utilized a single spring, as well as another that incorporated a device that oiled cartridge cases for easier extraction. The former feature allowed the chamber pressure to drop to a safe level, if the machine gun was operated correctly.

Use as an infantry weapon

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in a trench, 1916. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / bildarchivaustria / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The Schwarzlose MG was developed for use by infantrymen and thus was used heavily throughout the fighting that occurred during the First World War. It served a traditional, tripod-mounted role, with a crew of three typically charged with manning it. One served as the commander, while the others were the gunner and ammunition carrier. The third would also typically act as the loader.

While serving as an infantry weapon, the Schwarzlose could also be deployed with a more-compact “backpack mount,” although it was rarely used in such a way. In this configuration, it was fitted with a backwards folding bipod that was attached to the front of the water jacket, near the muzzle.

Modifying the Schwarzlose MG for aircraft was a challenge

Soldiers operating a Schwarzlose MG in an anti-aircraft capacity, 1915. (Photo Credit: NIMH / Dutch Ministry of Defence / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)

While the Schwarzlose MG was used by infantrymen in an anti-aircraft capacity, it was actually adapted for use by aircraft flown by the Austro-Hungarian k.u.k. Luftfahrtruppe. A lighter version was necessary for this, which was ring-mounted or fixed-wing.

Right away, it was evident the Schwarzlose wasn’t developed for use by aircraft, as synchronizing it proved to be an engineering nightmare, due to the weapon’s delayed blowback mechanism. To bypass this, the fighters were equipped with large tachometers and Kravics indicators, which warned pilots of malfunctions in the synchronization gear. Attached through electrical wiring, they knew something was wrong when the Kravics’ light went out.

Increasing the defense of military fortifications

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in the Tyrol Mountains. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Das Ende einer Armee / Fritz Weber / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Outside of its aforementioned roles, the Schwarzlose MG also saw use as a naval gun aboard sea vessels and a fortress weapon. When equipped for the latter, it could be deployed on a host of different fixed mountings.

While its use as a fortress weapon was limited during WWI, the Czechoslovakians used the Schwarzlose in this capacity during the interwar period. The country’s armed forces adapted the machine gun, tasked the Janeček Factory with production and renamed it the těžký kulomet vz. 7/24.

Issues with the Schwarzlose MG

Soldiers manning a Schwarzlose MG in the field, 1916. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

While the Schwarzlose MG was effective as an infantry weapon, it did have issues, particularly when used in ways it hadn’t been designed for, such as its aforementioned role as an aircraft gun. Outside of this, its unlocked-breech design required a shorter barrel, which, while helping to alleviate pressure, limited the machine gun’s muzzle velocity and reach. It also created a significant muzzle flash, necessitating the use of a rather large flash suppressor.

Another issue involved the Schwarzlose’s reliance on the weight of its breech block and semi-folded toggle arm. The former would unfold at a severe mechanical disadvantage, thereby slowing down the opening of the former.

Use by other nations

Soldiers manning Schwarzlose MGs in an anti-aircraft capacity, 1916. (Photo Credit: FORTEPAN / Urbán Tamás / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Outside of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Schwarzlose MG saw use by a number of nations, including Greece, the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, Imperial Russia and Sweden, to name a few. During the interwar period, the Polish Air Force equipped its aircraft with the machine guns, using them against the Soviets during the Polish-Soviet War, while Japan equipped the 6.5 mm Arisaka variant on its Fusō-class battleships and Kongō-class battlecruisers.

When World War II broke out, the Schwarzlose was the standard-issue machine gun for the Italian colonial forces stationed in North Africa, where it saw limited action as an anti-aircraft weapon. The German Army also used it during the final stages of the conflict, while the Swedish volunteer unit (SFK) equipped it during the Winter War.

Before it became obsolete, the Schwarzlose also saw use during the 1932-33 Colombia-Peru War, the Russian Civil War, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the Austro-Slovene Conflict, the Balkan Wars, the Spanish Civil War and the Austrian Civil War.

If there’s one thing World War I is known for, it’s the use of trenches as a means of protection and strategy. They could be seen for hundreds of miles along the Western Front, employed by soldiers positioned near the English Channel, all the way to the Swiss Alps. Various types of trenches were employed during WWI, as a way to maximize their value. That being said, they still had their pitfalls.

How trenches changed warfare over the course of WWI

German machine guns along the front near Darkehmen, East Prussia. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

During WWI, trenches provided shelter for soldiers who engaged in the harsh fighting along the Western Front. They also made it difficult for the opposing forces to advance and attack the frontline. Dug under the cover of darkness, they ran eight feet deep and between four-six feet wide. Wood and/or tree posts were used to reinforce the walls and prevent collapse.

Trenches weren’t frivolously built without careful planning; there was a strategic pattern to them. They were constructed in a zig-zag formation, which allowed for the maximum amount of damage to be inflicted against the enemy, while lessening the number of casualties. Straight lines and uniform walls would have allowed for straight shots, so random turns and angled walls, known as traverses, provided quick shelter against artillery.

There were three common methods to digging trenches

15th New York Regiment training for trench warfare, 1910s. (Photo Credit: Underwood Archives / Getty Images)

There were three main methods of trench-building employed during WWI. The first was known as sapping, wherein soldiers dug shallow trenches that extended into No Man’s Land from larger ones. This was the safest way to extend the systems, as shallow areas could be built by one or two soldiers and reinforced as regular trenches were extended from them. In some cases, sapping was used for rescue and retreat purposes.

Tunneling was another common form of trench-building, and it followed a similar system to sapping. Tunnels were constructed underground to provide cover from enemy fire, making them safer than regular trenches, which didn’t have overhead coverings. They were used to protect injured soldiers, and were also employed during night raids on enemy positions. Additionally, the roofs could be collapsed to create regular trenches.

British trenches during WWI

Flooded trench along the Western Front. (Photo Credit: National Library of Scotland / Wikimedia Commons / No Restrictions)

British trenches were divided into four different types. The frontline trench, also known as the outpost line, was the closest to the enemy, located between 50 yards and one mile away. Barbed wire lined the top, providing protection for those manning them, such as sparsely-positioned machine gunners. Soldiers would spend one week in the frontline trench before retreating to the rear, alternating weekly.

The support trench was located several hundred yards away and provided support to the frontline, housing first aid stations and food preparation spots. It also served as a second line of defense, in case of the frontline trench becoming overrun. The reserve trench was even further back and served as an emergency position, should both the frontline and support trenches be taken over by the enemy.

Death came in many forms in the trenches

German advance through No Man’s Land. (Photo Credit: Buyenlarge / Getty Images)

Despite the immediate protection trenches offered, they were also extremely dangerous – and for multiple reasons. If a trench became overrun by the enemy, soldiers could become trapped and fall victim to direct fire, as they weren’t the easiest spaces to escape from. Although the zig-zag design did reduce the possibility of such an event occurring, those who weren’t quick enough were easily caught by enemy fire.

One of the most deadly issues to stem from trenches during WWI was trench foot. Rain and shallow water tables caused flooding, and if soldiers stood in said water for too long, their feet became waterlogged, swollen and blistered. The disease could become so severe that those afflicted with it would need their foot/feet amputated to prevent the spread of infection – or even death.

Maurice Rose lived through the horrors of the First World War and bravely returned to the battlefield when the global population was plunged into conflict once more. The Jewish major general never lived to see the German surrender in 1945, but his legacy is an inspiration to servicemen and civilians alike.

Maurice Rose was born to serve

Maurice Rose, 1944 + Plaque marking the birthplace of Maurice Rose. (Photo Credit: 1. Matthewdkaufman / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 2. Joe Mabel / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Maurice Rose was born on November 26, 1899 to Samuel and Katherin “Katy” Rose. Intelligent beyond his years, he grew up in Denver, Colorado. According to his high school classmates, he’d always had a dream of serving in the US military, with a cartoon in the school newspaper once depicting him carrying a rifle.

In 1916, the 17-year-old Rose lied about his age to become a private in the Colorado National Guard. He hoped to participate in the Pancho Villa Expedition. However, six weeks after his enlistment, he was discharged when his commander learned his true age.

In 1917, Rose, again, enlisted, this time with his parents’ permission. Similar to before, he lied about his age, this time to become eligible for Officer Candidate School (OCS), graduating four months after the United States entered the First World War. He was commissioned as a US Army Reserve second lieutenant of infantry and given command of a platoon with the 353rd Infantry Regiment, 89th Infantry Division.

Maurice Rose’s service during World War I

Members of the 353rd Infantry Regiment, 89th Infantry Division celebrating with citizens in Meuse, France following the conclusion of World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

Maurice Rose’s division received additional training while in Europe, before taking up position near Metz, in preparation for the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. During a German artillery barrage, Rose was hit by shrapnel and wounded. Even with his injuries, which included a concussion, he refused to be evacuated. However, he was ultimately removed from the battlefield after collapsing from exhaustion.

Rising up the military ladder during World War II

M4 Sherman tanks with the US 3rd Armored Division on a snow-covered road in Manhay, Belgium, 1945. (Photo Credit: Photo12 / UIG / Getty Images)

Maurice Rose was assigned to Fort Knox, Kentucky when the US joined the Second World War in 1941. Now a lieutenant colonel, he commanded the 3rd Battalion, 13th Armored Regiment, before being reassigned as the executive officer of the 1st Armored Brigade, 1st Armored Division. One newspaper reporter caught sight of Rose while watching the brigade training and referred to him as “probably the best-looking man in the army.”

Maurice Rose’s senseless death

Memorial Day service at the Netherlands American Cemetery, 1945. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)

While navigating a forested area outside of Paderborn in northeastern Germany on March 30, 1945, the 3rd Armored Division received reports that the units behind them were being held up by German troops. As they turned around, they were gunned down and surrounded by the SS Panzer Brigade Westfalen.

Best known as the “Man with the Donkey,” John Simpson Kirkpatrick was one of many larger than life figures who landed with the ANZACs during the Gallipoli Campaign. Serving with the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance, he and his donkeys aided their comrades during the offensive, becoming almost-legendary figures by the time the First World War came to an end.

John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s early life

For years, the man in this image was incorrectly identified as Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick. In actuality, he’s Lt. Richard Alexander Henderson of the New Zealand Medical Corps. (Photo Credit: Sergeant James G. Jackson / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

John Simpson Kirkpatrick was born on July 6, 1892 in County Durham, England. He began working with donkeys as a youngster on his summer holidays, a skill that would place him in good stead in the years to come.

When he turned 16, Kirkpatrick volunteered as a gunner for the Territorial Force, before joining the British Merchant Navy in 1909. When his ship was docked in New South Wales, Australia in May 1910, he deserted his crew and took odd jobs around the country.

3rd Australian Field Ambulance

Australian 3rd Field Ambulance, with Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick standing third from the left, October 1914. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

John Simpson Kirkpatrick enlisted as a field ambulance stretcher bearer in Perth on August 23, 1914, after which he began training at Blackboy Hill Training Camp. Following this, he was assigned to the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance, regimental number 202, with whom he served for the entirety of his time overseas.

The group were sent to take part in the Gallipoli Campaign, which, at the time, was already well underway, landing at ANZAC Cove on April 25, 1915 as part of the 1st Australian Division. It didn’t take long for Kirkpatrick to get into the swing of things, carrying injured soldiers from the frontlines to receive medical attention.

Duffy the donkey

Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick with Duffy the donkey during the Gallipoli Campaign, 1915. (Photo Credit: J.A. O’Brien / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Although Duffy is perhaps the best known of John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s donkeys, sources indicate he likely had multiple – or, at the very least, different nicknames for the same one: Duffy No. 1, Duffy No. 2, Murphy, Abdul and Queen Elizabeth.

John Simpson Kirkpatrick is killed in action

Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s headstone. (Photo Credit: Gsl / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Sadly, John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s dedication to the wounded was short-lived, as he was killed in action (KIA) during the Third Attack on ANZAC Cove on May 19, 1915. He was only 22 years old.

Remembering John Simpson Kirkpatrick

Statue dedicated to John Kirkpatrick Simpson and Duffy the donkey at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia. (Photo Credit: Gsl / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Although he only served for just over three weeks, John Kirkpatrick Simpson became an almost mythical figure in the years that followed his death. He is credited with saving 300 men over his 24 days of service. Many were said to have been seriously wounded, yet it has been pointed out that only those with more minor wounds would have been able to travel on Simpson’s donkey.Those with injuries to the head or chest couldn’t have ridden down a valley, even with the assistance of the handler. Nonetheless the stories persist, and numerous memorials to the “Man with the Donkey” still exist. He has even been portrayed in films, television shows and on postage stamps.

Best known as the “Man with the Donkey,” John Simpson Kirkpatrick was one of many larger than life figures who landed with the ANZACs during the Gallipoli Campaign. Serving with the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance, he and his donkeys aided their comrades during the offensive, becoming almost-legendary figures by the time the First World War came to an end.

John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s early life

For years, the man in this image was incorrectly identified as Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick. In actuality, he’s Lt. Richard Alexander Henderson of the New Zealand Medical Corps. (Photo Credit: Sergeant James G. Jackson / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

John Simpson Kirkpatrick was born on July 6, 1892 in County Durham, England. He began working with donkeys as a youngster on his summer holidays, a skill that would place him in good stead in the years to come.

When he turned 16, Kirkpatrick volunteered as a gunner for the Territorial Force, before joining the British Merchant Navy in 1909. When his ship was docked in New South Wales, Australia in May 1910, he deserted his crew and took odd jobs around the country.

3rd Australian Field Ambulance

Australian 3rd Field Ambulance, with Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick standing third from the left, October 1914. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

John Simpson Kirkpatrick enlisted as a field ambulance stretcher bearer in Perth on August 23, 1914, after which he began training at Blackboy Hill Training Camp. Following this, he was assigned to the 3rd Australian Field Ambulance, regimental number 202, with whom he served for the entirety of his time overseas.

The group were sent to take part in the Gallipoli Campaign, which, at the time, was already well underway, landing at ANZAC Cove on April 25, 1915 as part of the 1st Australian Division. It didn’t take long for Kirkpatrick to get into the swing of things, carrying injured soldiers from the frontlines to receive medical attention.

Duffy the donkey

Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick with Duffy the donkey during the Gallipoli Campaign, 1915. (Photo Credit: J.A. O’Brien / Australian War Memorial / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Although Duffy is perhaps the best known of John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s donkeys, sources indicate he likely had multiple – or, at the very least, different nicknames for the same one: Duffy No. 1, Duffy No. 2, Murphy, Abdul and Queen Elizabeth.

John Simpson Kirkpatrick is killed in action

Pvt. John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s headstone. (Photo Credit: Gsl / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Sadly, John Simpson Kirkpatrick’s dedication to the wounded was short-lived, as he was killed in action (KIA) during the Third Attack on ANZAC Cove on May 19, 1915. He was only 22 years old.

Remembering John Simpson Kirkpatrick

Statue dedicated to John Kirkpatrick Simpson and Duffy the donkey at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia. (Photo Credit: Gsl / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

Although he only served for just over three weeks, John Kirkpatrick Simpson became an almost mythical figure in the years that followed his death. He is credited with saving 300 men over his 24 days of service. Many were said to have been seriously wounded, yet it has been pointed out that only those with more minor wounds would have been able to travel on Simpson’s donkey.

Those with injuries to the head or chest couldn’t have ridden down a valley, even with the assistance of the handler. Nonetheless the stories persist, and numerous memorials to the “Man with the Donkey” still exist. He has even been portrayed in films, television shows and on postage stamps.

Despite his efforts, Kirkpatrick never received the Victoria Cross he was nominated for, due to a clerical error, one which has never been remedied.

Five hundred years before the start of World War I, the Teutonic Knights were gravely defeated by Slavic and Lithuanian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg (otherwise known as Grunwald). In 1914, the Germans practically slaughtered the entire Russian Second Army over the course of just four days, just miles away from the site of the 1410 battle. Given this, German officials couldn’t help but name the site their historic win, “Tannenberg.”

Early days of World War I

Belgian artillery captured by the Germans during the Battle of Liège, 1914. (Photo Credit: Underwood Archives / Getty Images)

Germany entered the Great War following the Schlieffen Plan, influenced by Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen and his vision of a sweeping German invasion of France and Belgium. The plan was to gather the country’s allies, before moving toward France via the Netherlands, where they would defeat the French Third Republic. At the same time, a limited German contingent would travel toward Russia to fend off potential attacks, until the triumphant soldiers arrived to bolster their numbers.

The entire strength of the German Army in 1914 totaled 1,191 battalions, the majority of which were deployed to France while the Eighth Army of East Prussia, comprised of just 10 percent of Germany’s entire military, set their sights on Russia.

Meanwhile, France organized a speedy mobilization of its forces, followed by an immediate attack to drive back the encroaching Germans. Buying time for the British and Russians to establish their defenses, neutral Belgium was defeated after two weeks of intense fighting during the Battle of Liège – the first official battle of WWI.

Battle of Gumbinnen

Eighth Army staff, 1914. (Photo Credit: Hogo Vogel / Sammelbild der Immalin-Werke / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The Eighth Army was by far the most inexperienced company in the Imperial German military. It was comprised of reservists and garrison troops, and led by Generaloberst Maximilian von Prittwitz, who was surprised to find the Russians had mobilized much faster than he’d anticipated.

Was Russia doomed from the start?

German soldiers fighting the Russian Army during the Battle of Tannenberg, 1914. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

The lead-up to the Battle of Tannenberg likely sealed Russia’s fate before the fighting even began. The Russian Army, with little experience, made a massive mistake when it came to its radio communications. Orders were being transmitted to personnel on open radio frequencies, and even though they were encoded, the Germans easily intercepted the messages and used them to their advantage.

Who won the Battle of Tannenberg?

Russian prisoners of war (POWs) being led to Berlin following the Battle of Tannenberg, 1914. (Photo Credit: Paul Thompson / FPG / Getty Images)

The height of the Battle of Tannenberg occurred on August 27, with the German heavy fire focused on the left wing. Soon, Russian troops began to flee across the frontier, toward Neidenburg, and von François ordered his men to hold the road from there to Willenberg.

They formed a barricade across the line of retreat as Russian soldiers flowed in and out of the nearby woods. The Germans secured the rear group, who were exhausted from lack of rest and food. The hungry and exhausted men accepted their defeat, surrendering to the Germans in the tens of thousands.

Even Samsonov found himself wrapped up in the flurry of retreating men. Unable to stop the madness, he turned around and rode south, only to get lost in the dense forest. His absence had gone unnoticed until the early hours of August 30, when a lone shot rang out from the woods. Rather than admit to his failure, Samsonov shot himself with his officer’s pistol.

Even though the German contingent of 150,000 men was outnumbered by the Russians, who had 230,000, they still managed to nearly eradicate the entire 2nd Army. When all was said and done, only 10,000 returned to Russia. Between 30,000-78,000 were killed or wounded in the battle, while another 92,000 were taken as prisoners of war (POWs).

Battles continued between the Germans and the Russian 1st Army Corps, who were also defeated and mostly destroyed. After the resounding success of the campaign, German Kaiser Wilhelm II named the battle after Tannenberg, a nod to the 1410 engagement that eviscerated German knights.

The term “Tommies” is most closely associated with British soldiers who served during the First World War. However, where and how did the nickname originate? It’s a topic of debate among historians, who also question whether a serviceman named Tommy Atkins ever really existed.

Paying respects to British war veterans

British soldiers on their way to the front, October 1939. (Photo Credit: Fox Photos / Getty Images)

“Tommy” is slang for a soldier who served in the British Army. While the term’s origins are disputed, it was often associated with 19th-century soldiers and those who served in World War I. It’s during the latter period that the name saw its most frequent use. Over time, however, it’s fallen out of the common vernacular, and is now used as a way to show admiration and respect for those who fought in the Great War.

Legend states that, in the trenches, enemy troops would call out for Tommy across No Man’s Land, looking to speak with a British soldier.

Tommy Atkins

British soldiers having a scratch meal during the Second Boer War, 1901. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)

The debate as to why and when British soldiers began being called “Tommy” has been ongoing. The Imperial War Museums found what seems to be the oldest written record of the name Tommy Atkins, in a letter dating back to 1743.

At the time, Jamaica was under British rule, and the red coats worn by the British had already earned them another nickname, “Thomas Lobsters.” The letter calling the soldiers “Tommy Atkins” was sent to the British War Office, to report a mutiny among mercenaries.

Did Thomas Atkins fight during the Flanders Campaign?

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Getty Images)

One of the more popular theories behind how Tommies got their nickname comes from Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Wellesley wouldn’t coin the nickname for British soldiers until later in life, but one serviceman, in particular, stuck with him long enough to inspire the term when the time came.

In 1794, Wellesley commanded the 33rd Regiment of Foot in the bloody hand-to-hand combat of the Battle of Boxtel. Following the fierce engagement, he walked through the battlefield and noticed the best man at arms, Pvt. Thomas Atkins, laying horribly wounded. When he approached, the soldier looked up at Wellesley and said, “It’s all right, sir, all in a day’s work.”

Tommies littered the pages of infantry paperwork

British soldiers around a destroyed cottage, 1918. (Photo Credit: National Library of Scotland / Wikimedia Commons / No Known Copyright Restrictions)

A theory that seems to disprove the one credited to Wellesley dates back to 1815. At that time, the British War Office was in search of a name that could function as both a generic term and placeholder on sample infantry paperwork. After some deliberation, “Tommy Atkins” was chosen.

When a recruit was unable to sign his name to his enlistment papers, he’d mark the page and have “Tommy Atkins” take the place of his own. To show how to properly fill out the form, the name was printed in every sample service detail of the Soldiers Account Book.

Another ‘Tommy Atkins’ was famed for his bravery

British soldier with the 51st Division during the German offensive in Lys, April 1918. (Photo Credit: John Warwick Brooke / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Whether or not their real names were Tommy Atkins, there were quite a few throughout history who earned notoriety for their bravery. One such case was a soldier involved in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

The alleged Tommy Atkins was serving with the 32nd Regiment of Foot when the mutiny broke out. Committed to serving his country, he remained at his post, despite pleas from his comrades to accompany them in their retreat to the British Residency. He subsequently became overwhelmed by the attacking force and was killed.

The time of Tommies has come to an end

World War I veteran Harry Patch, October 2007. (Photo Credit: Matt Cardy / Getty Images)

As popular as Tommies were, the nickname has largely fallen out of use. Harry Patch became known as the “Last Tommy,” as he was the final surviving British trench combat soldier to have fought in WWI. He lived to the age of 111, and died in 2009. Now, only the private soldiers of British Army’s Parachute Regiment have a nickname that resembles the moniker: “Toms.”

The term has since found its way into other parts of the British Army. The Tommy Cooker was a portable, alcohol-fueled stove issued to British troops throughout the Great War. It was praised for its fuel source, which produced no visible smoke. However, it had a reputation for being unable to effectively heat food or water.

On April 9, 1918, Aníbal Augusto Milhais and his comrades with the 2nd Infantry Division of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps were embroiled in the intense Battle of the Lys. The bombs and artillery were unrelenting as Milhais lay in the second trench of the Allied line. He was shocked by what happened next, and the events that followed changed his life forever, proving just how fearless he was and making him Portugal’s greatest war hero.

Portugal’s unexpected role in the First World War

Portuguese soldiers departing for battle, 1916. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

Not much is known about Aníbal Augusto Milhais’ early life, other than he was born on July 9, 1885 in northern Portugal. He was drafted into the Infantry of Bragança in the summer of 1915, and two years later deployed to France with the Trás os Montes Brigade, part of the 2nd Infantry Division of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps.

Portugal’s role in World War I was different from other Allied forces. The country had initially remained neutral, but hostilities arose between it and Germany, due to U-boat activity in the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal’s wish to comply with British requests for aid. Things came to a head when Portugal seized German vessels at the country’s ports, leading Germany to declare war on March 9, 1916.

An unexpected attack by the Germans

Portuguese soldiers during the Battle of the Lys, 1918. (Photo Credit: João Carvalho / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In the months leading up to the Battle of the Lys, the 2nd Infantry Division was worn down by constant German bombardments and raids, contributing to casualties and extreme fatigue. The battle began on April 7, 1918, but everything came to a head in the early hours of April 9.

Aníbal Augusto Milhais settled in a dugout in the second trench along the Allied front, and he stayed low as the bombs and shells continued to pummel the area around him. Eventually, the heavy shelling subsided to nothing more than the sound of thunder in the distance – but Milhais knew there wasn’t a storm rolling in. He looked out from behind the trench, trying to see past the thick fog that settled over No Man’s Land.

Aníbal Augusto Milhais fought off a German advance on his own

Trench warfare during World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

As gunfire rang out, Aníbal Augusto Milhais ran through the trench system and leaped across a large hole to get to a road on the other side. Ducking behind a dirt wall, he found several soldiers hiding from the Germans, many of them without guns to defend themselves.

Enemy troops, armed with guns and bayonets, approached the group, and Milhais told the others to run to safety while he covered their retreat. His Lewis gun was superior to the German rifles and quickly decimated the approaching men, single-handedly stopping the German advance for a time.

Aníbal Augusto Milhais found himself alone behind enemy lines

Destroyed tank on a devastated street corner in Belgium during the First World War. (Photo Credit: US Army / Interim Archives / Getty Images)

Aníbal Augusto Milhais ran out of ammunition and started moving beyond the trenches in search of escape. Eventually, he found an abandoned piece of canvas draped on the ground next to a dead horse. He covered himself with it before the enemy stormed past him in search of the retreating Portuguese.

After hours spent hiding, Milhais emerged and found himself totally alone behind enemy lines. He dashed across the open field and into the cover of a nearby forest, making his way back toward Allied lines. While traveling, he found an unharmed Scottish major stuck in a swamp. Milhais rescued him, and the two men continued back to the frontlines together.

Three days after the battle began, the two finally made it back to their units.

The soldier ‘worth a million men’

Aníbal Augusto Milhais (center) with his fellow Portuguese soldiers. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Throughout the remainder of the First World War, Aníbal Augusto Milhais continued to fight with honor and distinction, at one point laying down suppressive fire to allow a Belgian unit to make it to a secondary trench without any casualties. For his actions, he was awarded Portugal’s highest military distinction, the Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit, as well as the French Légion d’Honneur, presented to him on the battlefield in front of 15,000 Allied soldiers.

He was even affectionately known as the soldier “worth a million men.”

The origin of mine warfare dates back all the way to the mid-19th century, during the American Civil War. In December 1861, Confederate officer Maj. Gen. Leonidas K. Polk oversaw several men as they loaded explosives into iron containers and buried them along two routes leading into Columbus, Ohio.

Luckily, the Union soldiers discovered the cache of explosives and dismantled them before they were detonated, but Polk and others had become infatuated with the idea of using mines to sway the outcome of the conflict in their favor. Half a century later, landmines took on a whole new level of lethality during the First World War and, in particular, the Battle of Messines.

Planting Allied landmines along Messines Ridge

Sappers and miners digging under Hill 60, south of Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: The Print Collector / Getty Images)

The area of Ypres, Belgium saw some of the most prolific battles of the First World War. and it’s where mining really took shape. The Germans first captured Messines Ridge in 1914, which afforded them a high-point to clearly observe Allied movements. After suffering heavy casualties, the Allies began mining against German-held areas in West Flanders. Explosives were placed 15-20 feet below the surface, beneath the enemy territory.

German forces came within meters of Allied mines

Two women check an Electric Contact (EC) mine, 1918. (Photo Credit: G.P. Lewis / Imperial War Museums / Getty Images)

The Germans were also digging their own network of tunnels – in fact, one came within meters of the British mine chambers. They also unearthed a mine at La Petite Douve Farm well before the Battle of Messines began.

The Germans weren’t totally oblivious to the Allies’ mine plans, as spies and air-based reconnaissance had picked up on the heavy activity around Messines Ridge. They were also aware that the Allies were planning to use the mines as part of a ground-level attack. After debating leaving the area lined with mines, they decided an assault wasn’t imminent. If one happened to occur, they were confident enough in their defenses, even though some officers wanted to retire to a safer location.

Battle of Messines and the boom heard across Europe

Forty-five-meter-deep crater created by the explosions at the Battle of Messines, 1917. (Photo Credit: Fernand Cuville / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Just before dawn on June 7, 1917, British artillery halted as the sound of nightingales singing broke through the silence of the battlefield. At 3:10 AM, the mines along the Messines were all fired within 20 seconds of each other, creating a massive boom as the largest non-nuclear explosion tore through German territory.

Some even suggested it was the loudest man-made sound in history, supposedly heard as far as London and Dublin.