Categories
Aircraft

15 Facts You Didn’t Know About The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor

The F-22 Raptor is renowned as the first 5th-generation fighter in the U.S. Air Force inventory. It is exceptionally impressive because it features modern avionics, low observable technologies, and efficient engines to bring to the show a fighter unmatched by any other modern military of today.

It is the most crucial component of the Global Strike Task Force and has been created to achieve the purposes of projecting air dominance, at great distances and quickly, while destroying any threats attempting to refuse access to the US Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and the Air Force.

There are no projected fighter aircraft out there in the world that can match the F-22, giving the US a great weapon in their stockpile. Undoubtedly, the F-22 is something extremely special, and we cannot wait to see everything it has up its sleeve over time.

Here are 15 facts you didn’t know about the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor:

15. Twice As Many Missiles

lockheedmartin.com
The F-35 can carry around a total of 5,700 pounds of bombs and missiles. On the other hand, the F-22 is capable of carrying more than twice that weight. Hence, not only does the F-22 have amazing combat features, but it is also ideal for traveling during times of conflict because of all the weapons it can carry.

14. Capable Of Thrust Vectoring

pinterest.com
The fact that the F-22 is capable of thrust vectoring is just one of the few things that make it such an incredible asset for the US to have. Thrust-vectoring nozzles were added by the Lockheed-led team on the F-22 in order to achieve an enhanced level of maneuverability.
13. First 5th-Generation Military Aircraft In America
flickr.com
There is word going around that the US is considering the production of a greater number of F-22s over time, as it is the best fighter aircraft they have. After all, the F-22 is the first 5th generation fighter and to this day, the only operational one. For now, the US has no need to worry.

12. 30 Year Lifespan

flickr.com
The F-22 has been designed for a lifespan of 30 years and 8,000 flight hours, alongside a $100 million “structures retrofit program”. There is work being done to find a way to further extend the life of an F-22, and in the longer term, the F-22 is likely to be superseded by a sixth-generation jet fighter.

11. Most Expensive Fighter Jet In The Country

flickr.com
The F-22 is the most expensive fighter aircraft in the country and one of the most expensive all across the world too. However, the price being $150 million per Raptor is not a surprise considering that the F-22 was revolutionary from the very beginning and one of the greatest military advancements ever.

10. Max Speed: Mach 1.82

flickr.com
The maximum speed of the F-22 without external stores is measured to be Mach 1.82 during supercruise, and with afterburners, it is estimated to be greater than Mach 2. What makes it even better is that it is easy to maneuver at both supersonic and subsonic speeds.

9. Large Weapon Capacity

militarymachine.com
The F-22 can carry a large number of weapons as it has four hardpoints on the wings, all of which can carry around 5,000 lbs and are capable of holding external fuel tanks or AIM-120A AMRAAM. The F-22 comes with three internal weapon bays, and the main weapons bay can carry the highest number of weapons.

8. First Combat Mission:2014

flickr.com
On 23rd September 2014, the F-22 went on its first combat mission when it engaged ISIS ground targets in Syria. It was a mission which made a statement to the world by showing everyone what the F-22 is capable of. The US is lucky to have such a strong weapon at their disposal.

7. Operating Cost Per Hour

flickr.com
The operating cost (per hour) of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a big $68, 362. While that is quite an intimidating number, it doesn’t come as a shocker considering the potential of this aircraft, and the insane amount of fuel that must be required to simply keep it running in the first place.

6. No Export

defense.gov
The F-22 cannot be exported out of the US according to US federal law in an attempt by the US to protect its stealth technology and classified features. Reports have stated that Japan has tried to purchase the F-22 as it would require fewer fighters for itself if it had the F-22.

5. Kill Ratio Of 108:0

flickr.com

With a kill ratio of 108:0, the F-22 surely manages to live up to its name. According to reports from the Exercise Northern Edge 2016, the F-22 had to compete with the F-15 and came on top with a kill ratio of 108:0. It has maintained good ratios even against some very advanced aircraft.

4. ‘Bumblebee’

flickr.com

Since the main wings and the rear wings of the F-22 line up exactly, it appears as small as a bumblebee on radars. That makes it extremely small and difficult to capture, however, it is not invisible. According to China, they have produced technology allowing them to track the F-22 easily.

3. Combat Built

flickr.com

The F-22 served as a replacement for the F-16 Fighting Falcon and the F-15 Eagle, hence it is capable of both air to ground combat and air to air combat. However, some might argue that the best strength of the F-22 lies in its air to air superiority.

2. 1.7 Million Lines Of Code

nationalinterest.org

The software of the F-22 consists of around 1.7 million lines of code, out of which the majority is linked to the processing of radar data. According to the Former Secretary of the USAF (Michael Wynne), the use of the DOD’s Asa was to be blamed for the delays and cost overruns related to the F-22.

1. Unique Cockpit

virtualpilot3d.net

The most crucial fact for a pilot – the F-22 has a unique cockpit decked out in the trending technology. It has an upgraded life support system and is the first cockpit compatible with the baseline Night Vision Goggles. Lastly, the cockpit uses the Helmet Mounted System, ensuring that the pilot can focus in a consistent manner.

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Aircraft

Eurocopter Tiger: The Ultimate Attack Helicopter

Introduction to the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a modern, multi-role attack helicopter developed jointly by France and Germany. It is designed to perform various missions, including armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, and escort duties. The Tiger is known for its agility, firepower, and advanced avionics, making it a formidable asset on the battlefield.

Development of the Tiger began in the 1980s when France and Germany recognized the need for a next-generation attack helicopter to replace their aging fleets. Eurocopter, now known as Airbus Helicopters, was selected as the main contractor for the project. The Tiger was developed in two main variants: the HAP (Hélicoptère d’Appui Protection or Support and Escort Helicopter) for the French Army and the UHT (Unterstützungshubschrauber Tiger or Support Helicopter Tiger) for the German Army.

The Eurocopter Tiger features a sleek and aerodynamic design, with a tandem cockpit configuration to accommodate a pilot and a weapons systems operator. It is powered by twin engines, providing excellent performance and maneuverability. The helicopter has advanced avionics and sensor systems, including a sophisticated targeting and sighting system, a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera, and a helmet-mounted display for the crew.

Regarding armament, the Tiger can carry a wide range of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and a 30mm automatic cannon. This allows it to engage and destroy targets such as armored vehicles, enemy helicopters, and fortified positions. The Tiger’s weapons systems are integrated with its advanced sensor suite, providing the crew with enhanced situational awareness and target acquisition capabilities.

Since its introduction, the Tiger has seen active service in conflicts and peacekeeping missions worldwide. It has demonstrated its capabilities in combat operations and has been praised for its versatility and effectiveness on the battlefield. The Tiger has undergone continuous upgrades and improvements, ensuring it remains an advanced attack helicopter.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a highly capable attack helicopter developed jointly by France and Germany. With its advanced avionics, powerful armament, and agile maneuverability, the Tiger is a formidable asset in modern warfare, capable of performing a wide range of missions with precision and effectiveness.

Design and Features of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a well-designed and feature-rich attack helicopter. Let’s explore its design and notable features:

Airframe: The Tiger has a sleek and aerodynamic airframe, primarily constructed with composite materials to reduce weight and increase durability. The airframe incorporates stealth technology, including reduced radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures, enhancing its survivability on the battlefield.

Cockpit: The Tiger features a tandem cockpit configuration, where the pilot sits in the rear, and the weapons systems officer (WSO) sits in the front. This arrangement provides excellent visibility for both crew members. The cockpits are equipped with state-of-the-art avionics, multi-function displays, and digital systems to assist the crew in mission planning, target acquisition, and overall situational awareness.

Sensors and Avionics: The Tiger has advanced sensor systems that enable day and night operations in all weather conditions. It includes a mast-mounted sight, the Optronic Mast System (OMS), which houses various sensors, including a high-resolution infrared camera, laser rangefinder, laser designator, and a TV camera. The OMS provides superior target detection, recognition, and identification capabilities for the crew.

Weapons Systems: The Tiger is armed with various powerful weapons to engage various targets. It typically carries air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and a chin-mounted Nexter 30mm cannon. Air-to-air missiles can engage enemy aircraft and helicopters, while air-to-ground missiles and rockets can engage armored vehicles, bunkers, and other ground targets. The 30mm cannon provides a high rate of fire and excellent anti-personnel and anti-material capabilities.

Self-Protection Systems: The Tiger incorporates self-protection systems to enhance its survivability in hostile environments. These systems include radar and laser warning receivers, missile approach warning systems, and chaff/flare dispensers. These measures help detect and counter incoming threats such as radar-guided missiles and anti-aircraft artillery.

Powerplant: The Tiger is powered by two turboshaft engines, typically the MTR390 engine developed by MTU Aero Engines and Rolls-Royce. These engines provide the helicopter with exceptional speed, agility, and maneuverability, allowing it to operate effectively in various mission scenarios.

Mission Capabilities: The Tiger is designed to perform a wide range of missions, including armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, escort duties, and battlefield interdiction. Its advanced avionics, long-range sensors, and versatile weapons systems enable it to operate in complex and challenging environments, providing crucial support to ground forces.

The Eurocopter Tiger is a well-engineered attack helicopter that combines advanced technology, firepower, and agility. Its design and features make it a versatile and competent platform for various military operations, ensuring its effectiveness on the modern battlefield.

Combat Capabilities of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, possesses formidable combat capabilities, making it a potent battlefield force. Here are some critical aspects of its combat capabilities:

Attack and Firepower: The Tiger has various weapons to engage and neutralize multiple targets. Its primary armament is a chin-mounted Nexter 30mm caliber cannon, which provides a high rate of fire and excellent anti-personnel and anti-material capabilities. The Tiger can also carry air-to-air missiles for engaging enemy aircraft and helicopters and air-to-ground missiles and rockets for engaging armored vehicles, bunkers, and other ground targets.

Precision Engagement: The Tiger’s advanced avionics and sensor systems enable precise target engagement. The mast-mounted sight, or Optronic Mast System (OMS), houses various sensors, including a high-resolution infrared camera, laser rangefinder, laser designator, and TV camera. These sensors provide the crew with enhanced target detection, recognition, and identification capabilities, enabling them to engage targets with accuracy and minimal collateral damage.

Battlefield Awareness: The Tiger features advanced sensor suites and avionics that enhance situational awareness for the crew. These systems provide real-time information about the battlefield, including the location of friendly and enemy forces, threat detection, and terrain data. This comprehensive situational awareness allows the crew to make informed decisions, respond effectively to dynamic situations, and maximize mission success.

Agility and Maneuverability: The Tiger is known for its agility and maneuverability, allowing it to operate effectively in complex and challenging environments. Its twin-engine configuration provides ample power, enabling rapid acceleration and deceleration, tight turns, and quick changes in direction. The helicopter’s agility allows it to evade threats, engage targets from advantageous positions, and operate in confined spaces.

Survivability: The Tiger incorporates various self-protection systems to enhance its survivability in combat. These systems include radar and laser warning receivers, missile approach warning systems, and chaff/flare dispensers. The helicopter’s stealth characteristics, such as reduced radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures, further contribute to its survivability by making it more difficult for enemy forces to detect and engage.

Network-Centric Operations: The Tiger can operate as part of a network-centric warfare environment, exchanging information with other friendly forces, command centers, and intelligence systems. This connectivity enables the Tiger to receive real-time updates, share data with other platforms, and participate in coordinated operations, increasing its overall combat effectiveness.

Multirole Capabilities: The Tiger is a versatile platform capable of performing multiple roles on the battlefield. It can conduct armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, escort duties, and battlefield interdiction. This multirole capability allows the Tiger to adapt to different mission requirements and effectively support ground forces across various combat scenarios.

The Eurocopter Tiger possesses impressive combat capabilities. Its firepower, precision engagement systems, situational awareness, agility, and survivability make it a highly effective attack helicopter capable of conducting various combat missions with excellent proficiency.

Operational History of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, has seen operational service with several nations since its introduction. Here is an overview of its operating history:

France: The French Army became the launch customer for the Tiger, receiving their first Tiger HAP (Hélicoptère d’Appui Protection or Support and Escort Helicopter) in 2003. The French Army has actively deployed the Tiger in various conflicts and peacekeeping operations, including Afghanistan, Mali, and the Central African Republic. It has proven effective in providing close air support, reconnaissance, and anti-tank capabilities.

Germany: The German Army received their first Tiger UHT (Unterstützungshubschrauber Tiger or Support Helicopter Tiger) in 2005. The Tiger UHT is tailored explicitly for anti-tank warfare and fire support missions. The German Tigers have participated in international missions, including operations in Afghanistan, conducting reconnaissance, and close air support missions.

Spain: Spain acquired a fleet of Tiger HAD (Helicóptero de Apoyo y Destrucción or Support and Destruction Helicopter) variants, primarily for fire support missions. The Spanish Tigers have been deployed in operations in Afghanistan and Mali.

Australia: The Australian Army also operates the Tiger ARH (Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter) variant. However, the Australian Tiger program has faced technical and operational readiness challenges. As a result, the Australian Army temporarily grounded its Tiger fleet in 2019. Efforts are underway to rectify the problems and bring the helicopters back into service.

Other Nations: Besides the primary operators mentioned above, other nations have expressed interest in acquiring or have considered catching the Tiger for their armed forces. These include countries such as Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Poland. However, it’s worth noting that some of these procurement plans have faced delays or cancellations for various reasons.

Throughout its operational history, the Tiger has been deployed in diverse environments and has demonstrated its combat effectiveness. Its advanced reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, and fire support capabilities have proven valuable on the battlefield. The Tiger’s operational experience continues to inform upgrades and improvements to enhance its performance and meet evolving functional requirements.

It’s important to note that the operational history of the Tiger is based on information available up until my last knowledge update in September 2021, and there may have been further developments since then.

Future Developments and Upgrades for the Eurocopter Tiger.

As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, several future developments and upgrades were planned for the Eurocopter Tiger. However, the information might have evolved since then. Here are some notable initiatives:

Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU): The Eurocopter Tiger program includes plans for a Mid-Life Upgrade to enhance the helicopter’s capabilities and extend its service life. The MLU aims to incorporate avionics, sensors, and weapon systems improvements and address obsolescence issues. This upgrade will ensure that the Tiger remains a capable and modern platform on the battlefield.

Enhanced Sensors and Avionics: The Tiger is expected to receive upgrades to its sensor and avionics systems, including improved target acquisition and identification capabilities. This may involve enhancements to the mast-mounted sight, such as incorporating advanced sensors, increased resolution, and expanded capabilities for night operations. Upgrades to the avionics suite may focus on improved data processing, communication systems, and integration with network-centric warfare capabilities.

Weapon System Enhancements: Future developments for the Tiger may involve upgrades to its weapon systems. This could include the integration of new and advanced air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and other munitions. The aim would be to improve the Tiger’s engagement capabilities, range, and overall lethality against various target types.

Increased Mission System Integration: The Tiger could benefit from further integration with mission systems and networked command and control infrastructure. This would enable seamless information sharing with other platforms, ground forces, and higher headquarters, enhancing overall situational awareness and coordination during joint operations.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Cooperation: There have been discussions about potential cooperation between the Tiger and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Integrating UAVs with the Tiger’s mission systems could enhance its reconnaissance capabilities and provide additional battlefield intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition capabilities.

It’s important to note that specific plans and timelines for these developments and upgrades may vary, and they are subject to the requirements and priorities of the participating nations. For the most up-to-date information, it is advisable to refer to official announcements and sources from Airbus Helicopters or relevant defense organizations involved in the Tiger program.

Categories
Aircraft

Concorde: Why Did the World’s Only Supersonic Jetliner Stop Flying?

Concorde was done in by a combination of market forces that negatively impacted the aviation industry, a terror attack, and a freak accident.

The Concorde was many things. Innovative and supersonic, it held numerous commercial airline speed records and was the fastest way to travel internationally. Despite several world records and the fastest service money could buy, the joint French-English developed Concorde flew for less than 30 years.

Concorde was done in by a combination of market forces that negatively impacted the aviation industry, a terror attack, and a freak accident.

Air France Flight 4590

On July 25th, 2000, Air France Flight 4590 was on track to lift off from Paris’ Charles de Gaulle airport with New York as its final destination. Though the flight did manage to become airborne, it never made it to the City that Never Sleeps.

While taking off, the AF 4590 struck a piece of metal that had been sitting on the tarmac runway. One of the Concorde’s landing gear wheels struck the metal debris and sent it hurtling into the Concorde’s port, or left, wing.

Concordes were notoriously thirsty birds thanks to their super-sonic flight characteristics. In order to keep their four Roles-Royce turbojet engines satiated, they carried over 200,000 pounds of fuel in 17 internal fuel tanks—one of which was struck by the flying metal piece. The force of the impact caused one of the wing tanks to rupture, spewing jet fuel onto the runway. A stray spark caused the fuel to ignite.

The jetliner was going too fast to abort taking off, and too slow to gain much altitude. Flight AF 4590 crashed into an airport hotel near the end of the runway, killing all 109 passengers and four other people in the hotel.

September 11th Attacks

Just over a year later, the September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States caused a massive dip in international travel—much to the detriment of the Concorde. Unlike France’s neighbor the United Kingdom, la République has a less-extensive maritime border.

Aviation regulations mandated that Concordes would have to fly more slowly over land to reduce sound disturbance over the ground. This hit French Concordes particularly hard. After the post-9/11 dip in air travel, the already struggling birds were even less in demand, and therefore less profitable.

Lack of Parts

The aerospace firm Airbus, stopped making spare parts for the world’s Concorde fleets in 2003, as it was no longer economically beneficial to do so. The Concorde was essentially doomed to the boneyard, and the airframes would never fly again.

Postscript

Despite Concorde’s many achievements, it didn’t live long. For comparison, the iconic Boeing 747 was introduced into service in 1970 and went on to become one of the world’s most successful jet airliners—and it still flies today, easily surpassing the Concorde in usefulness. Still, flying aboard a Concorde was an unforgettable experience—despite the hefty price tag.

Categories
Aircraft

Eurocopter Tiger: The Ultimate Attack Helicopter

Introduction to the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a modern, multi-role attack helicopter developed jointly by France and Germany. It is designed to perform various missions, including armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, and escort duties. The Tiger is known for its agility, firepower, and advanced avionics, making it a formidable asset on the battlefield.

Development of the Tiger began in the 1980s when France and Germany recognized the need for a next-generation attack helicopter to replace their aging fleets. Eurocopter, now known as Airbus Helicopters, was selected as the main contractor for the project. The Tiger was developed in two main variants: the HAP (Hélicoptère d’Appui Protection or Support and Escort Helicopter) for the French Army and the UHT (Unterstützungshubschrauber Tiger or Support Helicopter Tiger) for the German Army.

The Eurocopter Tiger features a sleek and aerodynamic design, with a tandem cockpit configuration to accommodate a pilot and a weapons systems operator. It is powered by twin engines, providing excellent performance and maneuverability. The helicopter has advanced avionics and sensor systems, including a sophisticated targeting and sighting system, a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) camera, and a helmet-mounted display for the crew.

Regarding armament, the Tiger can carry a wide range of weapons, including air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and a 30mm automatic cannon. This allows it to engage and destroy targets such as armored vehicles, enemy helicopters, and fortified positions. The Tiger’s weapons systems are integrated with its advanced sensor suite, providing the crew with enhanced situational awareness and target acquisition capabilities.

Since its introduction, the Tiger has seen active service in conflicts and peacekeeping missions worldwide. It has demonstrated its capabilities in combat operations and has been praised for its versatility and effectiveness on the battlefield. The Tiger has undergone continuous upgrades and improvements, ensuring it remains an advanced attack helicopter.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a highly capable attack helicopter developed jointly by France and Germany. With its advanced avionics, powerful armament, and agile maneuverability, the Tiger is a formidable asset in modern warfare, capable of performing a wide range of missions with precision and effectiveness.

Design and Features of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, is a well-designed and feature-rich attack helicopter. Let’s explore its design and notable features:

Airframe: The Tiger has a sleek and aerodynamic airframe, primarily constructed with composite materials to reduce weight and increase durability. The airframe incorporates stealth technology, including reduced radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures, enhancing its survivability on the battlefield.

Cockpit: The Tiger features a tandem cockpit configuration, where the pilot sits in the rear, and the weapons systems officer (WSO) sits in the front. This arrangement provides excellent visibility for both crew members. The cockpits are equipped with state-of-the-art avionics, multi-function displays, and digital systems to assist the crew in mission planning, target acquisition, and overall situational awareness.

Sensors and Avionics: The Tiger has advanced sensor systems that enable day and night operations in all weather conditions. It includes a mast-mounted sight, the Optronic Mast System (OMS), which houses various sensors, including a high-resolution infrared camera, laser rangefinder, laser designator, and a TV camera. The OMS provides superior target detection, recognition, and identification capabilities for the crew.

Weapons Systems: The Tiger is armed with various powerful weapons to engage various targets. It typically carries air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and a chin-mounted Nexter 30mm cannon. Air-to-air missiles can engage enemy aircraft and helicopters, while air-to-ground missiles and rockets can engage armored vehicles, bunkers, and other ground targets. The 30mm cannon provides a high rate of fire and excellent anti-personnel and anti-material capabilities.

Self-Protection Systems: The Tiger incorporates self-protection systems to enhance its survivability in hostile environments. These systems include radar and laser warning receivers, missile approach warning systems, and chaff/flare dispensers. These measures help detect and counter incoming threats such as radar-guided missiles and anti-aircraft artillery.

Powerplant: The Tiger is powered by two turboshaft engines, typically the MTR390 engine developed by MTU Aero Engines and Rolls-Royce. These engines provide the helicopter with exceptional speed, agility, and maneuverability, allowing it to operate effectively in various mission scenarios.

Mission Capabilities: The Tiger is designed to perform a wide range of missions, including armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, escort duties, and battlefield interdiction. Its advanced avionics, long-range sensors, and versatile weapons systems enable it to operate in complex and challenging environments, providing crucial support to ground forces.

The Eurocopter Tiger is a well-engineered attack helicopter that combines advanced technology, firepower, and agility. Its design and features make it a versatile and competent platform for various military operations, ensuring its effectiveness on the modern battlefield.

Combat Capabilities of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, possesses formidable combat capabilities, making it a potent battlefield force. Here are some critical aspects of its combat capabilities:

Attack and Firepower: The Tiger has various weapons to engage and neutralize multiple targets. Its primary armament is a chin-mounted Nexter 30mm caliber cannon, which provides a high rate of fire and excellent anti-personnel and anti-material capabilities. The Tiger can also carry air-to-air missiles for engaging enemy aircraft and helicopters and air-to-ground missiles and rockets for engaging armored vehicles, bunkers, and other ground targets.

Precision Engagement: The Tiger’s advanced avionics and sensor systems enable precise target engagement. The mast-mounted sight, or Optronic Mast System (OMS), houses various sensors, including a high-resolution infrared camera, laser rangefinder, laser designator, and TV camera. These sensors provide the crew with enhanced target detection, recognition, and identification capabilities, enabling them to engage targets with accuracy and minimal collateral damage.

Battlefield Awareness: The Tiger features advanced sensor suites and avionics that enhance situational awareness for the crew. These systems provide real-time information about the battlefield, including the location of friendly and enemy forces, threat detection, and terrain data. This comprehensive situational awareness allows the crew to make informed decisions, respond effectively to dynamic situations, and maximize mission success.

Agility and Maneuverability: The Tiger is known for its agility and maneuverability, allowing it to operate effectively in complex and challenging environments. Its twin-engine configuration provides ample power, enabling rapid acceleration and deceleration, tight turns, and quick changes in direction. The helicopter’s agility allows it to evade threats, engage targets from advantageous positions, and operate in confined spaces.

Survivability: The Tiger incorporates various self-protection systems to enhance its survivability in combat. These systems include radar and laser warning receivers, missile approach warning systems, and chaff/flare dispensers. The helicopter’s stealth characteristics, such as reduced radar, infrared, and acoustic signatures, further contribute to its survivability by making it more difficult for enemy forces to detect and engage.

Network-Centric Operations: The Tiger can operate as part of a network-centric warfare environment, exchanging information with other friendly forces, command centers, and intelligence systems. This connectivity enables the Tiger to receive real-time updates, share data with other platforms, and participate in coordinated operations, increasing its overall combat effectiveness.

Multirole Capabilities: The Tiger is a versatile platform capable of performing multiple roles on the battlefield. It can conduct armed reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, close air support, escort duties, and battlefield interdiction. This multirole capability allows the Tiger to adapt to different mission requirements and effectively support ground forces across various combat scenarios.

The Eurocopter Tiger possesses impressive combat capabilities. Its firepower, precision engagement systems, situational awareness, agility, and survivability make it a highly effective attack helicopter capable of conducting various combat missions with excellent proficiency.

Operational History of the Eurocopter Tiger.

The Eurocopter Tiger, now known as the Airbus Tiger, has seen operational service with several nations since its introduction. Here is an overview of its operating history:

France: The French Army became the launch customer for the Tiger, receiving their first Tiger HAP (Hélicoptère d’Appui Protection or Support and Escort Helicopter) in 2003. The French Army has actively deployed the Tiger in various conflicts and peacekeeping operations, including Afghanistan, Mali, and the Central African Republic. It has proven effective in providing close air support, reconnaissance, and anti-tank capabilities.

Germany: The German Army received their first Tiger UHT (Unterstützungshubschrauber Tiger or Support Helicopter Tiger) in 2005. The Tiger UHT is tailored explicitly for anti-tank warfare and fire support missions. The German Tigers have participated in international missions, including operations in Afghanistan, conducting reconnaissance, and close air support missions.

Spain: Spain acquired a fleet of Tiger HAD (Helicóptero de Apoyo y Destrucción or Support and Destruction Helicopter) variants, primarily for fire support missions. The Spanish Tigers have been deployed in operations in Afghanistan and Mali.

Australia: The Australian Army also operates the Tiger ARH (Armed Reconnaissance Helicopter) variant. However, the Australian Tiger program has faced technical and operational readiness challenges. As a result, the Australian Army temporarily grounded its Tiger fleet in 2019. Efforts are underway to rectify the problems and bring the helicopters back into service.

Other Nations: Besides the primary operators mentioned above, other nations have expressed interest in acquiring or have considered catching the Tiger for their armed forces. These include countries such as Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Poland. However, it’s worth noting that some of these procurement plans have faced delays or cancellations for various reasons.

Throughout its operational history, the Tiger has been deployed in diverse environments and has demonstrated its combat effectiveness. Its advanced reconnaissance, anti-tank warfare, and fire support capabilities have proven valuable on the battlefield. The Tiger’s operational experience continues to inform upgrades and improvements to enhance its performance and meet evolving functional requirements.

It’s important to note that the operational history of the Tiger is based on information available up until my last knowledge update in September 2021, and there may have been further developments since then.

Future Developments and Upgrades for the Eurocopter Tiger.

As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, several future developments and upgrades were planned for the Eurocopter Tiger. However, the information might have evolved since then. Here are some notable initiatives:

Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU): The Eurocopter Tiger program includes plans for a Mid-Life Upgrade to enhance the helicopter’s capabilities and extend its service life. The MLU aims to incorporate avionics, sensors, and weapon systems improvements and address obsolescence issues. This upgrade will ensure that the Tiger remains a capable and modern platform on the battlefield.

Enhanced Sensors and Avionics: The Tiger is expected to receive upgrades to its sensor and avionics systems, including improved target acquisition and identification capabilities. This may involve enhancements to the mast-mounted sight, such as incorporating advanced sensors, increased resolution, and expanded capabilities for night operations. Upgrades to the avionics suite may focus on improved data processing, communication systems, and integration with network-centric warfare capabilities.

Weapon System Enhancements: Future developments for the Tiger may involve upgrades to its weapon systems. This could include the integration of new and advanced air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, rockets, and other munitions. The aim would be to improve the Tiger’s engagement capabilities, range, and overall lethality against various target types.

Increased Mission System Integration: The Tiger could benefit from further integration with mission systems and networked command and control infrastructure. This would enable seamless information sharing with other platforms, ground forces, and higher headquarters, enhancing overall situational awareness and coordination during joint operations.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Cooperation: There have been discussions about potential cooperation between the Tiger and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Integrating UAVs with the Tiger’s mission systems could enhance its reconnaissance capabilities and provide additional battlefield intelligence, surveillance, and target acquisition capabilities.

It’s important to note that specific plans and timelines for these developments and upgrades may vary, and they are subject to the requirements and priorities of the participating nations. For the most up-to-date information, it is advisable to refer to official announcements and sources from Airbus Helicopters or relevant defense organizations involved in the Tiger program.

Categories
Historic

Where is the Tomb of Alexander the Great?

Where is the tomb of Alexander the Great, one of the most successful rulers and military strategists of all time? He was only 33-years-old when he died in Babylon in 323 BC.

Mosaic of Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was born in Pella in 356 BC. He was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia and the student of the great Greek Philosopher Aristotle. He had his first military victory when he was only 16-years-old. Despite his obvious strengths as a king’s son, Philip and Alexander had a falling out when Philip chose a new wife of Macedonian birth. There was talk of producing a “legitimate” heir. This angered Alexander and he and his mother were exiled.

Nonetheless, Alexander became king when his father was assassinated during his daughter’s wedding. He was 20-years-old. By the time he was 26-years-old, he had conquered the Persian Empire.

Body Laid in Memphis, Egypt

He said before his death that he was leaving his kingdom to “the strongest.” If he had wanted his empire to exist in peace after his death, he chose the wrong words. His men took this to mean that the strongest of them would take the place of Alexander. This naturally led to fighting.

Amidst all of the bickering, plans for the burial of the king were being made, which they also argued about. Plans were made and changed several times. Ultimately, Ptolemy I Soter hijacked the body in 321 BCE before its transfer to Aegea and laid Alexander’s remains to rest in Memphis, Egypt.

The funeral procession of Alexander the Great, as depicted by Diodorus. Image: Public Domain.
The funeral procession of Alexander the Great, as depicted by Diodorus Siculus. Image: Public Domain.

The Coffin

According to Diodorus Siculus in Book XVIII:

[blockquote align=”none” author=”Diodorus Siculus, Book XVIII”]First, they prepared a coffin of the proper size for the body, made of hammered gold, and the space about the body they filled with spices such as could make the body sweet-smelling and incorruptible. Upon this chest there had been placed a cover of gold, matching it to a nicety, and fitting about its upper rim. Over this was laid a magnificent purple robe embroidered with gold, beside which they placed the arms of the deceased, wishing the design of the whole to be in harmony with his accomplishments.[/blockquote]

Revered in Death

Because of Alexander’s great success in life, brought about by his tenacity and daring, he was greatly revered in death. This is how we know where his tomb was in certain places at certain times. There are records of such people as Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, and Caligula (who may have had his breastplate stolen out of his sarcophagus) visiting his tomb. We also know that Alexander the Great’s body may have been placed in a golden sarcophagus.

julius caesar at the tomb of alexander the great

Either Ptolemy I Soter or his son Philadelphus moved Alexander’s body to a new tomb in Alexandria in the late 4th or early 3rd Century BCE. The tomb was placed in a Mausoleum and reported to still exist in 274 BCE.

The tomb in Alexandria was replaced with another by Ptolemy Philopator around 215 BC. Philopator had a mausoleum erected in the center of Alexandria. In it, he placed some of his ancestors and Alexander the Great.

There is a record of Alexander the Great’s golden sarcophagus being melted down and sold in 89 BC. It was replaced by a glass sarcophagus.

The last definite record we have of the tomb of Alexander the Great dates to roughly 215 AD, when Caracella visited the tomb.

A Period of Turmoil

War came to Alexandria during the 3rd century. The city was attacked and ransacked repeatedly over the course of many years. It is possible that the tomb of Alexander the Great was destroyed, partially destroyed and/or robbed at this time.

Mother Nature and Christianity

If the tomb remained standing after these events, as some accounts suggest, then it is likely that it was destroyed during the famous earthquake and tsunami that struck Alexandria in 365 AD.

If by some chance the tomb or the corpse survived the tsunami, it is likely that the tomb was lost around 400 AD when the Christians began demanding that pagans cease to worship false gods. As Alexander the Great was worshipped in his death, he would have been a prime candidate for destruction. If the revered king’s body and tomb were still intact at this time, they may not have stood a chance against the Christians.

Rising sea levels may also have a hand in hiding the tomb. According to National Geographic, the sea level around Alexandria has risen upwards of 12 feet since Alexander’s death.

No Further Trace

After this time period, there is no reference to the location of Alexander the Great’s tomb. To this day, no trace of any of his three tombs has been found. His sarcophagus, body, or any of the relics supposedly buried with him have never been found. If his tomb had been looted, we may stand a chance of finding these things elsewhere than Alexandria. If it was destroyed by the massive tsunami that presumably took other treasures with it, chances are we will never find any trace of it.

The Final Location

The general consensus, and most likely truth, is that the tomb of Alexander the Great is in the center of Alexandria, Egypt. Several scholars have deduced the tomb is somewhere in the area of what was Canopic Street, now known as Horreya Avenue.

A 1784 depiction of Canopic Street, Alexandria.
A 1784 depiction of Canopic Street, Alexandria.

There have been claims that Alexander’s tomb may be found elsewhere and that there is evidence for such. However, the evidence that it was in Alexandria when it was either destroyed or looted beyond recognition is overwhelming by comparison.

Nonetheless, we must conclude at this point that the fate of the tomb of Alexander the Great is unknowable as it stands.

Categories
Historic

Where Were Sodom and Gomorrah?

The biblical cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are synonymous with sin and divine punishment. According to Genesis 18-19, God destroyed them with a rain of sulfur and fire. The Old Testament is chock full of geographical and historical details of the twin cities, before and after their destruction. However, historians and archaeologists debate both the veracity and locations of these fabled ruins.

John Martin's 1852 painting showing the destruction of the two cities.
John Martin’s 1852 painting showing the destruction of the two cities.

The Dead Sea and the Cities of the Plain

Reference to the two cities appears throughout the Old Testament, but Genesis chapters 14 through 19 offer the region’s lengthiest descriptions. Sodom and Gomorrah were only two of many kingdoms around the Jordan River valley and the Dead Sea region, also called the Valley of Siddim. The so-called cities of the plain were Sodom, Gomorrah, Zoar, Admah, and Zeboiim. According to Genesis 14.10, before the destruction, “the Valley of Siddim was full of bitumen pits; as the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, some fell into them, and the rest fled to the hill country.” This passage introduces critical geographical features of note in the search for these ruined cities.

Men of the City of Sodom

The real story of Sodom and Gomorrah surrounds a bargain between the patriarch Abraham and the Lord God. In Genesis 18, the Lord recognized the wickedness growing in the land but promised Abraham that if ten righteous people were found in Sodom, He would not destroy the city. The angels sent by the Lord received hospitality from Lot upon entering the city but were set upon thereafter by a mob of wicked men: “both young and old, all the people to the last man, surrounded the house; and they called to Lot, ‘Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us, so that we may know them’.” (Gen. 19:4-5).

Sins of the Sodomites

Biblical scholars debate the actual crime of the men of Sodom, who sought to “know” (Hebrew: yada) Lot’s visitors. Hospitality to strangers, as Lot showed, was a preeminent virtue of ancient civilizations. When the people of Sodom broke this convention, Lot tried to spare his visitors by offering the mob his two virgin daughters instead. Whether the crime of the Sodomites was sexual immorality or a violent denial of hospitality remains debated. In either case, God’s punishment was now certain for Sodom and its twin city.

Lot and his daughters with Sodom burning in the background by Cornelis Cort.
Lot and his daughters with Sodom burning in the background by Cornelis Cort.

Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah

The angels of the Lord told Lot of the imminent destruction, warning him not to “stop anywhere in the Plain; flee to the hills,” and not to look back upon the ruin.

Then the Lord rained on Sodom and Gomorrah sulfur and fire from the Lord out of heaven; and he overthrew those cities, and all the Plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and what grew on the ground… Abraham went early in the morning to the place where he stood before the Lord; and he looked down toward Sodom and Gomorrah and toward all the land of the Plain and saw the smoke of the land going up like the smoke of a furnace (Genesis 19:24-25; 27).

Gathering his family, Lot arrived at the city of Zoar when the sulfur and fire rained down from the heavens. Famously, his wife did gaze toward the disaster and became a pillar of salt.

This rock formation on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea is known as Lot's Wife.
This rock formation on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea is known as Lot’s Wife. Image: Wikimedia Commons.

Historical Clues

In the Septuagint, the earliest books of the Old Testament, we garner some clues of the location and context of these lost cities. Abraham is thought to have lived during the Third Dynasty of Ur, around 2100 BCE. This timeline is critical, as the Middle Eastern climate in 2100 BCE was cooler and wetter. Areas now dominated by desert were hospitable to agriculture and ground cover. The Jordanian plain would have boasted numerous cities, but which were the real Sodom and Gomorrah?

Natural Disaster

Putting aside the prospect of divine destruction, scientists and archaeologists continue to search for a natural explanation for the destruction of the cities, attentive to the physical evidence from the plain of Jordan. Many mythological traditions are born from natural disasters, rendered into parables focusing on divine retribution. The Greeks called this an etiology, a story that explains the cause of some natural feature or event. This may be the case in the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah.

The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah by Jacob de Wet II, 1680.
The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah by Jacob de Wet II, 1680. Image: Public domain.

Earthquake

Prone to major earthquakes, the region may have suffered twin catastrophes. An earthquake would have devastated mudbrick buildings, as seen in the 2003 destruction of the Iranian city of Bam. Earthquakes also release horrific secondary forces. Earthquakes can literally liquefy the ground, causing the cities to collapse or sink. Landslides from the northern hills could have buried the cities. Finally, a seismic activity could have caused an explosive release of gasses from the ground. The bitumen deposits of the region, particularly in the southern Jordanian valley, could have poisoned both the soil and the air. Abraham’s view of the smoke coming off the land like a furnace in Genesis 19 lends some credence to this theory.

Related: Where was the Garden of Eden

Finding the Cities: Archaeological Theories.

Biblical archaeologists have scoured the Jordanian plains and the region around the Dead Sea for nearly two centuries, seeking out these cities’ ruins. Scholars have proposed both northern and southern locations.

Tall el-Hammam 

Close to the mouth of the River Jordan, northeast of the Dead Sea, archaeologist Dr. Steven Collins has worked at Tall el-Hammam since 2005. A massive Bronze-Age city, Collins’ excavations have revealed features expected of the Bronze Age (circa 3500-1500 BCE), such as massive city walls, palace and temple complexes. Some pottery and cuneiform tablets from the site were fired and vitrified, covered in a glassy coating. The discovery of zircon crystals on the site, present only in environments of intense heat, led Collins to propose that an exploding meteor slammed into the site around 1700 BCE. However, some archaeologists and geologists reject Collins’ theories based on the late destruction date and the absence of a crater or impact site.

Bab edh-Dhra and Numeria

The gate of Bab edh-Dhra overlooking the southern end of the Dead Sea.
The gate of Bab edh-Dhra overlooking the southern end of the Dead Sea. Image: Wikimedia.

On the shallow, southeastern shore of the Dead Sea, the sites of Bab edh-Dhra and Numeria have also been pronounced as the twin cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Many early Bronze Age cities are found in the southern region, typically smaller than the site at Tall el-Hammam. The southern theory closely adheres to the geographical descriptions in Genesis, as these sites are found in proximity to sulfur-rich bitumen and petroleum deposits. Skepticism surrounds this proposal as well. Numeria is considered too small to fit the description of Gomorrah. Secondly, both the chronology and absence of a dual destruction fail to match the biblical evidence.

Conclusion

The fertile climate of the Middle Bronze Age and the geographical advantages of settlement in the Dead Sea region clearly supported many cities in the Biblical era. Locating the remains of Sodom and Gomorrah, though, relies upon careful analysis of too few clues in Genesis. Many towns rose and fell across the Middle East during the Bronze Age, whether through human intervention or natural disaster. Archaeologists and historians will continue their search to locate the famously smote cities of Sodom and Gomorrah in the site-rich Jordanian valley.

Categories
Archaeology World

Blue-eyed humans have a single, common ancestor

People with blue eyes have a single, common ancestor, according to new research. A team of scientists has tracked down a genetic mutation that leads to blue eyes. The mutation occurred between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago. Before then, there were no blue eyes.

Blue-eyed humans have a single, common ancestor
Reese Witherspoon.

“Originally, we all had brown eyes,” said Hans Eiberg from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine at the University of Copenhagen.

The mutation affected the so-called OCA2 gene, which is involved in the production of melanin, the pigment that gives colour to our hair, eyes and skin.

“A genetic mutation affecting the OCA2 gene in our chromosomes resulted in the creation of a ‘switch,’ which literally ‘turned off’ the ability to produce brown eyes,” Eiberg said.

The genetic switch is located in the gene adjacent to OCA2 and rather than completely turning off the gene, the switch limits its action, which reduces the production of melanin in the iris. In effect, the turned-down switch diluted brown eyes to blue. If the OCA2 gene had been completely shut down, our hair, eyes and skin would be melanin-less, a condition known as albinism.

“It’s exactly what I sort of expected to see from what we know about selection around this area,” said John Hawks of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, referring to the study results regarding the OCA2 gene. Hawks was not involved in the current study.

Baby blues

Eiberg and his team examined DNA from mitochondria, the cell’s energy-making structures, of blue-eyed individuals in countries including Jordan, Denmark and Turkey. This genetic material comes from females, so it can trace maternal lineages.

They specifically looked at sequences of DNA on the OCA2 gene and the genetic mutation associated with turning down melanin production.

Over the course of several generations, segments of ancestral DNA get shuffled so that individuals have varying sequences. Some of these segments, however, that haven’t been reshuffled are called haplotypes.

If a group of individuals shares long haplotypes, that means the sequence arose relatively recently in our human ancestors. The DNA sequence didn’t have enough time to get mixed up.

“What they were able to show is that the people who have blue eyes in Denmark, as far as Jordan, these people all have this same haplotype, they all have exactly the same gene changes that are all linked to this one mutation that makes eyes blue,” Hawks said in a telephone interview.

Melanin switch

The mutation is what regulates the OCA2 switch for melanin production. And depending on the amount of melanin in the iris, a person can end up with eye colours ranging from brown to green.

Brown-eyed individuals have considerable individual variation in the area of their DNA that controls melanin production. But they found that blue-eyed individuals only have a small degree of variation in the amount of melanin in their eyes.

“Out of 800 persons we have only found one person which didn’t fit — but his eye colour was blue with a single brown spot,” Eiberg told LiveScience, referring to the finding that blue-eyed individuals all had the same sequence of DNA linked with melanin production.

“From this, we can conclude that all blue-eyed individuals are linked to the same ancestor,” Eiberg said. “They have all inherited the same switch at exactly the same spot in their DNA.” Eiberg and his colleagues detailed their study in the online edition of the journal Human Genetics.

That genetic switch somehow spread throughout Europe and now other parts of the world.

“The question really is, ‘Why did we go from having nobody on Earth with blue eyes 10,000 years ago to having 20 or 40 per cent of Europeans having blue eyes now?” Hawks said. “This gene does something good for people. It makes them have more kids.”

Categories
Archaeology World

Giant 1,100 Pound bone belonging to sauropod found in France

The femur of a giant dinosaur was found this week by French palaeontologists at an excavation site in southwest France where, since 2010, remains of some of the largest animals ever to live on land have been excavated.

Maxime Lasseron inspects the femur of a Sauropod (AFP/Getty Images)
Maxime Lasseron inspects the femur of a Sauropod.

The thigh bone of a giant dinosaur was found this week by French palaeontologists at an excavation site in southwestern France where remains of some of the largest animals that ever lived on land have been dug up since 2010.

The two-meter-long femur at the Angeac-Charente site is thought to have belonged to a sauropod, an herbivorous dinosaur with long necks and tails which were widespread in the late Jurassic era, over 140 million years ago.

“This is a major discovery,” Ronan Allain, a palaeontologist at the National History Museum of Paris told Reuters. “I was especially amazed by the state of preservation of that femur.”

“These are animals that probably weighed 40 to 50 tonnes.”

Allain said scientists at the site near the city of Cognac had found more than 7,500 fossils of more than 40 different species since 2010, making it one of the largest such finds in Europe.

Scientists believe that the bones are from a sauropod, which is the largest herbivorous dinosaur and first appeared in the late Triassic Period.

These reptiles were the largest of all dinosaurs and the largest land animals that have ever lived, they had a small head a long neck and a very long tail.

Scientists believe they would spend their time wallowing in shallow water that would help support their bodies.

The dinosaur bone was found covered in clay by volunteers from the National Museum of Natural History.

Categories
Archaeology World

A 70-million-year-old dinosaur baby unearthed in China is one of the best-preserved fossils ever found

A dinosaur embryo perfectly curled up in its fossilized egg was analyzed by a team of researchers in southeastern China.

The rundown: The fossil, estimated to be between 72 and 66 million years old, belonged to an oviraptorosaur — a beaked, toothless and omnivorous theropod that existed during the Cretaceous Period of what is now Asia and North America.

Researchers published their findings in the journal Science.

The embryo was estimated to be 27 centimetres (11 inches) long from head to tail. Researchers said the dinosaur, which would have fed on plants, would be 2-3 meters (79-118 inches) long had it lived to adulthood.

The embryo was close to hatching as evidenced by its “tucking” posture, a behavior seen in modern birds. Chicks preparing to hatch tuck their heads under their right wing for stability as they crack the shell with their beak.

Modern birds are direct descendants of theropods, which are two-legged dinosaurs. Theropods include the Tyrannosaurus rex, spinosaurus and velociraptor, among others.

What the researchers are saying: Due to its complete structure, the fossil turned out to be one of the best dinosaur embryos found in history, the researchers told AFP. They called the creature “Baby Yingliang” after Yingliang Stone Nature History Museum, its current location.

Our little one has just arrived. Welcome Baby Yingliang, a gorgeous fossil dinosaur embryo preserved inside its egg! You’re looking here at a baby dinosaur, not too long before it would have hatched.

“This skeleton is not only complete from the tip of the snout to the end of its tail; it is curled in a life pose within its egg as if the animal died just yesterday,” study co-author Darla Zelenitsky, an assistant professor of paleontology at the University of Calgary, told Live Science.

Lead author Waisum Ma, a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Birmingham, said dinosaur embryos happen to be some of the rarest fossils. Most non-avian embryos are also incomplete, with bones separated at the joints. “We are very excited about the discovery of ‘Baby Yingliang’ — it is preserved in a great condition and helps us answer a lot of questions about dinosaur growth and reproduction with it,” Ma said. “It is interesting to see this dinosaur embryo and a chicken embryo pose in a similar way inside the egg, which possibly indicates similar prehatching behaviours.”

The researchers said the embryo was found in Jiangxi province and acquired by Liang Liu, director of a Chinese stone company called Yingliang Group, in 2000. It was stored and forgotten until museum staff found it some 10 years later, during the construction of Yingliang Stone Nature History Museum, according to CNN.

Embryos that don’t adopt the tucking posture are more likely to die as a result of unsuccessful hatching. The team plans to study the fossil further using advanced scanning techniques, since part of its body remains covered by rock.

Categories
Archaeology World

A 3,300-Year-Old Bird Claw Was Discovered By Archaeologists While Digging In A Cave

Nearly three decades ago, a team of archaeologists were carrying out an expedition inside a large cave system on Mount Owen in New Zealand when they stumbled across a frightening and unusual object.

With little visibility in the dark cave, they wondered whether their eyes were deceiving them, as they could not fathom what lay before them—an enormous, dinosaur-like claw still intact with flesh and scaly skin.

The claw was so well-preserved that it appeared to have come from something that had only died very recently.

The archaeological team eagerly retrieved the claw and took it for analysis. The results were astounding; the mysterious claw was found to be the 3,300-year-old mummified remains of an upland moa, a large prehistoric bird that had disappeared from existence centuries earlier.

The upland moa (Megalapteryx didinus) was a species of moa bird endemic to New Zealand. A DNA analysis published in the  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  suggested that the first moa appeared around 18.5 million years ago and there were at least ten species, but they were wiped from existence “in the most rapid, human-facilitated megafauna extinction documented to date.”

With some sub-species of moa reaching over 10 feet (3 meters) in height, the moa was once the largest species of bird on the planet. However, the upland moa, one of the smallest of the moa species, stood at no more than 4.2 feet (1.3 meters). It had feathers covering its whole body, except the beak and soles of its feet, and it had no wings or tail. As its name implies, the upland moa lived in the higher, more cooler parts of the country.

Left: Illustration of a Moa. Right: Preserved footprint of a Moa (Wikimedia Commons)

The Discovery of the Moa

The first discovery of the moa occurred in 1839 when John W. Harris, a flax trader and natural history enthusiast, was given an unusual fossilized bone by a member of an indigenous Māori tribe, who said he had found it on a river bank.

The bone was sent to Sir Richard Owen, who was working at the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London. Owen was puzzled by the bone for four years—it did not fit with any other bone he had come across.

Eventually, Owen came to the conclusion that the bone belonged to a completely unknown giant bird. The scientific community ridiculed Owen’s theory, but he was later proved correct with the discoveries of numerous bone specimens, which allowed for the complete reconstruction of a moa skeleton.

Sir Richard Owen standing next to a moa skeleton and holding the first bone fragment belonging to a moa ever found.

Since the first discovery of moa bones, thousands more have been found, along with some remarkable mummified remains, such as the frightening-looking Mount Owen claw.

Some of these samples still exhibit soft tissue with muscle, skin, and even feathers. Most of the fossilized remains have been found in dunes, swamps, and caves, where birds may have entered to nest or to escape bad weather, preserved through desiccation when the bird died in a naturally dry site (for example, a cave with a constant dry breeze blowing through it).

Mummified head of an upland moa ( Wikimedia Commons )

The Rise and Fall of the Moa

When Polynesians first migrated to New Zealand in the middle of the 13th century, the moa population was flourishing. They were the dominant herbivores in New Zealand’s forest, shrubland, and subalpine ecosystems for thousands of years, and had only one predator—the Haast’s eagle. However, when the first humans arrived in New Zealand, the moa rapidly became endangered due to overhunting and habitat destruction.

“As they reached maturity so slowly, [they] would not have been able to reproduce quickly enough to maintain their populations, leaving them vulnerable to extinction,” writes the  Natural History Museum, London.

“All moas were extinct by the time Europeans arrived in New Zealand in the 1760s.” The Haast’s Eagle, which relied on the moa for food, died out soon after.

Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa ( Wikimedia Commons )

Revival of the Moa?

The moa has frequently been mentioned as a candidate for revival through cloning since numerous well-preserved remains exist from which DNA could be extracted. Furthermore, since it only became extinct several centuries ago, many of the plants that made up the moa’s food supply would still be in existence.

Japanese geneticist Ankoh Yasuyuki Shirota has already carried out preliminary work toward these ends by extracting DNA from moa remains, which he plans to introduce into chicken embryos. Interest in the ancient bird’s resurrection gained further support in the middle of this year when Trevor Mallard, a Member of Parliament in New Zealand, suggested that reviving the moa over the next 50 years was a viable idea.