The Avro Arrow is the subject of a frustrating and tragic story about a world-class aircraft that was simply too ambitious for the nation that undertook the challenge of designing it. It spawned from the era shortly after the Second World War, when the West was expecting a conflict with the Soviets and believed an attack would come from long-range, high-altitude bombers. To counter the potential threat, jet interceptors began to be constructed, with the Avro Arrow being Canada’s proposed aircraft.
Canada wanted its air industry to be a global powerhouse
Replica of the Avro Arrow. (Photo Credit: David Cooper / Toronto Star / Getty Images)
When the end of World War II was in sight, Canadian political and military leaders began looking to the post-war future. With the nation’s large number of aircraft factories still producing the Supermarine Spitfire and Avro Lancaster, they saw an opportunity.
With these factories, Canada would jump-start a major aircraft industry at the dawn of the Jet Age, designing and constructing aircraft in-house. However, officials didn’t plan on this being an ordinary industry. Instead, they aimed for it to be one the world simply couldn’t ignore. It was hoped that, with these designs, the country would establish itself as a major player in military and civil markets for years to come.
One of the first companies to spawn from this plan was Avro Canada, which quickly began work on a new jet-powered interceptor, the CF-100 Canuck. This aircraft experienced delays, but when it was ready proved to have a great design, allowing it to remain in service until 1981. However, as an interceptor, its performance was rather lackluster, especially against incoming threats.
Unfortunately, the CF-100 would be the only mass-produced Canadian-designed fighter in history. That being said, Avro Canada had already begun work on a successor before the aircraft had even entered service: the mythical Avro Arrow.
Testing the Avro Arrow
Schematics for the Avro Arrow. (Photo Credit: Imer / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Avro Arrow was to be Canada’s golden goose. However, as history would show, the nation had aimed too high.
The requirements were given to Avro Canada in 1953: a two-man aircraft with two engines that could cruise at Mach 1.5 at an altitude of 70,000 feet. The company responded with the C-105, a 24-meter-long, twin-engine aircraft with an internal weapons bay capable of carrying a variety of guided missiles and free-falling bombs, and a distinct shoulder-mounted delta wing.
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The proposal was so promising that, in July 1953, the project, renamed the CF-105, was given $27 million in funding. Just one month later, the Soviets detonated their first hydrogen bomb, after which they put the Myasishchev M-4 in the air. This led to the funding for the Avro Arrow being increased to $260 million, which would pay for the construction of five test aircraft, as well as 35 “Mark 2” Arrows with production engines and fire-control systems.
The design was thoroughly tested with scale models in a wind tunnel and extremely advanced computer simulations, resulting in a few changes, including the optimization of the nose and tail cones and the lowering of the wingtips. Titanium was used in some areas to help handle the extreme performance.
While the airframe was state-of-the-art, perhaps the most revolutionary aspect of the Avro Arrow was its flight-control system. Its wings and performance meant the aircraft had to use hydraulic actuators to move the control surfaces, which themselves were controlled by an early fly-by-wire system. This translated the pilot’s control column movements into signals that were sent to the hydraulics.
As the control column wasn’t physically connected to the surfaces, the pilot lost the “feel” of the aircraft and could also over-stress it by using too much force without knowing. Avro implemented a system that relayed the control surfaces’ movements back to the control column and artificially reproduced them with actuators, returning the feel of the aircraft to the pilot. The aircraft also used a high-tech Stability Augmentation System (SAS) that helped maintain the aircraft’s stability in all three axes of movement.
Avro unveiled the gleaming white Arrow to a crowd of 13,000 people in 1957, and the aircraft took its first flight on March 25, 1958. On the third test flight, it broke the sound barrier. By flight number seven, it passed 1,000 MPH. It showed brilliant flying characteristics during this time and almost reached Mach 2 during one high-speed flight.
The Avro Arrow is canceled
All seemed to be going great for the Avro Arrow, which many hoped would lead Canada’s charge into the aerospace industry. Unfortunately, while it was shaping up to be a game-changer, the program’s ballooning budget, which totaled $1.1 billion, was becoming a game-breaker.
In mid-1957, the country’s Liberal government was voted out, in exchange for the Progressive Conservative Party, led by John Diefenbaker. For the new government, the virtually blank check given to the Avro Arrow was simply unacceptable.
At the same time, the United States was offering Canada national defense equipment at a much cheaper price, and the technology for intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) had advanced and people began expecting an attack to come from space, instead of heavy bombers. This was further proof that the Avro Arrow was not only too expensive, but also unnecessary.
On February 20, 1959, on the day that became known as “Black Friday” in Canada, the Avro Arrow was officially canceled. Nearly 15,000 employees at Avro Canada and 15,000 more throughout its supply chain were instantly laid off. Shortly after, Avro Canada was ordered to destroy all plans, documents, blueprints, mock-ups and the completed aircraft themselves. However, some parts were smuggled by employees, and there’s even suspicions that a single Avro Arrow was saved and hidden away.
The cancellation essentially put an end to Avro Canada, which dissolved and was absorbed by Hawker Siddeley Canada. Canada would eventually buy 66 McDonnell CF-101 Voodoos to do the Avro Arrow’s work, albeit in a much less advanced way.
The Avro Arrow has never been forgotten by Canadians, who are proud that their nation’s relatively small and inexperienced aerospace industry managed to create a truly groundbreaking aircraft.
There have been some really unusual military vehicles built over the course of history, but none have amazed us more than the Lun-class MD-160. A form of Ground Effect Vehicle, this ekranoplan is a unique aircraft-ship hybrid that could have played a pivotal part in the Cold War, had it not been for the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Is the MD-160 an airplane or a ship?
The ekranoplan was a form of Ground Effect Vehicle, meaning it glided over water without ever touching it. To many, it appears to be a hybrid between an airplane and a sea vessel. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) actually classifies it as a ship, despite the fact it flies above the surface of the water at a height of one-to-five meters.
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
Ground Effect Vehicles are known for taking advantage of the aerodynamic principle “ground effect,” meaning they derive their speeds from their ability to glide over bodies of water. They are typically difficult to detect via radar, due to their proximity to the water, and this combination of stealth and speed made the concept especially appealing to the Soviet Union.
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
The USSR experimented with variations of the ekranoplan throughout the course of the Cold War, which the Soviet Navy nicknamed the “Caspian Sea Monster,” due to its deployment in the body of water between the country and Iran.
The Lun-Class MD-160
The Lun-class of ekranoplan was one of the last to be designed under the USSR’s Ground Effect Vehicle program. It was longer than an Airbus A380 Superjumbo airliner and nearly as tall, with a top speed of 550 kilometers per hour. This was due to its eight Kuznetsov NK-87 turbofans mounted on forward canards, each of which produced 127.4 kN of thrust.
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
Able to takeoff and land in stormy conditions thanks to its flying boat hull, the intention was for it to conduct lightning seaborne attacks. It was equipped for anti-surface warfare, with six P-270 Moskit guided missiles held in launchers situated in pairs along the dorsal surface of the fuselage. It also had advanced tracking systems mounted to its nose and tail.
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
The first and only Lun-class ekranoplan to reach completion was the MD-160, which entered service with the Soviet Navy Caspian Flotilla in 1987. There was a second craft – unnamed and assigned to rescue and supply missions – that was abandoned in the early 1990s, following the cancellation of the program and the collapse of the Soviet Union. It was around this time that the MD-160 was also removed from service.
Future as a tourist attraction
The MD-160 was stored at Kaspiysk Naval Base, where it sat for over three decades. In July 2020, it was moved from the location to the ancient Russian city of Derbent, some 100 kilometers away. The plan was to make it the main attraction of “Patriot Park,” a yet-to-be-built military museum and theme park.
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
Photo Credit: Musa Salgereyev / TASS / Getty Images
The effort to move the craft took 14 hours and included the use of rubber pontoons, three tugs and two escort vessels, which slowly maneuvered it along the shore of the Caspian Sea. It is here that it’s remained, waiting for the museum to be built up around it.
Many unusual military vehicles have been developed throughout history, yet there are few as strange as the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle. Designed to be piloted by someone with little (or no) flight experience, it initially showed great potential – that is, until some obvious flaws were uncovered.
Development of the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle
The concept for the Aerocycle first came about in the early 1950s, thanks to Charles H. Zimmerman of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). He came up with the idea of the rotorcraft, an aircraft with rotors on its underside that could be controlled by a pilot shifting their weight. It was intended to be flown by those with little-to-no flight training, and initial tests showed merit. This prompted aircraft manufacturers to begin developing their own designs.
Test flight of the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle. (Photo Credit: United States Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
de Lackner Helicopters presented a design that featured a one-man platform atop helicopter rotors. Known under the company designation “DH-4,” it was intended to carry up to 120 pounds of cargo or a five-gallon fuel tank.
It was a relatively simple design, consisting of a cross-shaped frame, upon which the pilot stood before bicycle-like handlebars. They were secured to the aircraft by a safety harness, which itself was attached to the 32kW outboard motor. This powered the Aerocycle’s 15-foot-long contra-rotating rotors.
News clipping about the testing of the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle. (Photo Credit: ArchiTexty / Flickr CC BY 2.0)
The DH-4’s landing gear consisted of airbags attached to arms, which themselves were connected to a rubber floatation device in the middle. This would allow the aircraft to operate in amphibious settings, if necessary. This feature was later replaced by a pair of helicopter type-skids. The craft also had a special parachute developed for it – the “Ultra-Fast Opening Personnel Parachute Type XMP-2” – which was later proven to be unreliable.
Testing was successful… At first
The DH-4 was eventually named the “HZ-1” by the US Army. Testing of the Aerocycle began on November 22, 1945 with the tethered flight of a prototype. This was soon followed by a free flight at the Brooklyn Army Terminal in January 1955. Over 160 test flights were conducted in total, amounting in over 15 hours of in-air experience, and the results were promising – so much so that the Army requested a dozen examples be produced.
de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle (also known as the “DH-4”) prototype at the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon. (Photo Credit: Daderot / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
The Army believed the Aerocycle could become the modern version of the horse cavalry, and it was alleged someone could learn to pilot the aircraft after less than 20 minutes of instruction. de Lackner Helicopters’ design also proved to be the fastest out of those presented to the service.
de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle following a crash. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Testing was transferred to Fort Eustis, Virginia in 1956, falling under the purview of Capt. Selmer Sundby. However, while the initial results had proved promising, Sundby quickly determined the Aerocycle had numerous flaws. Firstly, it was a lot more difficult to control than initially thought and therefore wouldn’t be safe in the hands of an unexperienced pilot. As well, the rotors kept kicking up debris from the ground.
Crashes led to the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle’s abandonment
During the testing period, the de Lackner HZ-1 Aerocycle experienced a pair of crashes that eventually led to the project being abandoned. Both occurred under similar conditions, after the contra-rotating rotors became intermeshed. This caused the blades to break and the pilot to lose control of the Aerocycle.
Following the crashes, testing was conducted in the wind tunnel at the Langley Research Center, where it was discovered the Aerocycle’s forward speed was limited by a pitching motion. Its rotor-tip clearance was found to be sufficient, so experts were unable to determine why the rotors kept intermeshing. This, paired with the overall concept of the HZ-1 failing to live up to expectations, led the Army to terminate the project.
There is nothing we love more than a good motto! The unofficial slogan for the US Air Force’s Wild Weasel crew is “YGBSM” – an acronym for “You’ve gotta be sh****n’ me!” After learning about the Wild Weasels, we think this is pretty accurate!
McDonnell Douglas F-4G Phantom II shows its undercarriage holding four different missiles: AGM-45, AGM-65, AGM-78 and AGM-88. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Wild Weasel is a codename given by the Air Force to any type of aircraft equipped with anti-radiation missiles that’s tasked with destroying the radar and surface-to-air missile (SAM) installations of enemy air defense systems. The missions undertaken by the Wild Weasels are some of the most dangerous jobs faced by today’s fighter pilots.
Wild Weasel tactics and techniques were developed during the Vietnam War. The concept was originally proposed in 1965 to counter the increasing North Vietnamese threat. “Project Wild Weasel” started in the summer of 1965 and formally went into effect that August. The Air Force and US Navy relied on volunteer crews to test out aircraft platforms outfitted with radar-seeking missiles throughout the next two years.
Republic F-105 Thunderchief carrying an AGM-45 Shrike anti-radiation missile. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The first tactic used by the Wild Weasels in Vietnam was known as the “Hunter Killer.” They used Republic F-105 Thunderchiefs – or “Thuds” – to hunt down enemy air defense systems. The Wild Weasel would be teamed with a more conventional aircraft, like the McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II, and it was up to them to destroy missile radar emitters, clearing the way for the F-4Es to destroy the rest of the site.
Another tactic used by the Wild Weasels was to act as a decoy to protect the strike force during regular missions. The F-105s would try to entice SAM launches. If successful, the launches would create enough smoke to make them visible, allowing the strikers to hone in on their targets. The Wild Weasels would continue to orbit the area to further reveal any enemy fighters, air artillery shells and SAMs.
A weasel, nicknamed Willie, features prominently in many official and unofficial Wild Weasel patches and logos. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / National Museum of the United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The unofficial motto of “YGBSM” came from Boeing B-52 Stratofortress Electronic Warfare Officer Jack Donovan. When Donavan was introduced to the tactics and mission details, he replied, “You want me to fly in the back of a little tiny fighter aircraft with a crazy fighter pilot who think he’s invincible, hone in on a SAM site in North Vietnam, and shoot it before it shoots me? You gotta be sh*****g me!”
Donovan’s reaction encompasses the danger surrounding the Wild Weasels, so it’s no surprise it stuck around as the unofficial motto! Today, Wild Weasel missions are performed by specially-trained General Dynamics F-16J Fighting Falcon crews. They continue to carry on the dangerous tradition and motto established by the F-105s in combat over Northern Vietnam throughout the 1960s and ’70s.
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat is one of the most iconic aircraft to ever be operated by the US Navy, with it serving as the primary aircraft for the service’s TOPGUN School. From its first flight in 1970 to its retirement in 2006, the supersonic aircraft served as the Navy’s primary maritime air superiority fighter, tactical aerial reconnaissance platform and fleet defense interceptor – and it all started with the Naval Fighter Experimental (VFX) program.
Naval Fighter Experiment (VFX) program
General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B, 1965. (Photo Credit: USN / Naval Aviation News / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The F-14 Tomcat’s origin story dates back to the middle of the Cold War, when the US Navy was in the market for an interceptor aircraft capable of protecting carrier battle groups against Soviet anti-ship missiles. This initially resulted in the development of the Douglas F6D Missileer, but its inability to adequately defend itself led to the aircraft’s cancellation in late 1961. This was then followed by the General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B, which also never entered production.
These failed attempts at developing the necessary aircraft led to the Naval Fighter Experiment program, which called for the following requirements:
Tandem two-seater, twin-engine aircraft capable of air-to-air combat.
Ability to reach speeds of Mach 2.2.
Built-in M61 Vulcan cannon.
Capable of firing either six AIM-54 Phoenix or a combination of four AIM-9 Sidewinder and six AIM-7 Sparrow missiles.
Developing the Grumman F-14 Tomcat
AIM-9 Sidewinder missile equipped by a Grumman F-14 Tomcat, 2002. (Photo Credit: LEILA GORCHEV / AFP / Getty Images)
While a number of companies submitted designs, Grumman was the one to win the bid. Given how quickly the US Navy needed the aircraft in the air, the prototype phase was skipped, with the first test flight taking place on December 21, 1970. Just under two years later, missile tests began with the AIM-54 Phoenix. By September 1974, the F-14 Tomcat had officially entered service.
Throughout the design and production process, upgrades and changes were done, with the F-14 becoming the most expensive fighter aircraft of its time. Between 1969-91, 721 units were manufactured.
Grumman F-14 Tomcat specs
Grumman F-14A Tomcat with Fighter Squadron 126 (VF-126), 1993. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
As aforementioned, the F-14 Tomcat was designed to perform more than one task, with the US Navy wanting both a fighter and an interceptor. As such, its design needed to provide the aircraft with these capabilities.
From wing-tip to wing-tip, the F-14 measured 64 feet, with an empty weight of nearly 44,000 pounds and a loaded one of 61,000. Following the “A” variant, it was powered by two General Electric F110-GE-400 afterburning turbofans, which were spaced nine feet apart to allow room for the missile carriage and create a large lifting surface. These engines allowed the aircraft to hit speeds of Mach 2.34 and a range of 1,840 miles.
In accordance with the armament requirements laid out by the Naval Fighter Experiment program, the F-14 was equipped with an M61 Vulcan capable of firing 675 rounds. It also had four undercarriage points and two hardpoints, which allowed it to carry the necessary missiles, which could be fired within 38 seconds.
A later iteration of the aircraft, the F-14B, also featured the ability to conduct ground attacks. This was accomplished through the use of Lockheed Martin’s Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night (LANTIRN), as well as the addition of bomb-dropping capabilities.
Later upgrades included multifunction cockpit displays, highspeed multiplex digital data busses and head-up displays, as well as a new glass cockpit, digital avionics and enhanced datalink to increase the crew’s situational awareness.
Operational history with the US Navy
Grumman F-14 Tomcat taking off from the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) during the early stages of the War in Afghanistan, 2001. (Photo Credit: RABIH MOGHRABI / AFP / Getty Images)
Upon being equipped by the US Navy in 1974, the F-14 Tomcat served as a replacement for the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II and began its combat service as a photo reconnaissance platform. It participated in Operation Frequent Wind in 1975 and was thrust onto the world stage following the Gulf of Sidra Incident, when two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 Fitters fired upon the American aircraft in 1981.
Throughout Operation Desert Storm, the F-14 was stationed primarily over the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, where it served in both reconnaissance and strike escort roles. Fast forward to the start of the War in Afghanistan in 2001, the aircraft was among the first to launch strikes against enemy targets in the Middle East.
The F-14’s final combat mission occurred in early 2006, when a pair, launched from the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) dropped a single bomb over Iraq. A few months later, it was officially retired from service.
The sole foreign operator of the F-14 Tomcat was the Imperial Iranian Air Force, which adopted the aircraft into service in 1976. However, following the Iranian Revolution, all Western orders were canceled, including those for American aircraft. That being said, the F-14s that had already been delivered were still flown.
Throughout the Iran-Iraq War, the aircraft was manned by the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, with pilots scoring 50 air-to-air kills in the first six months of the conflict. Iran claimed that, overall, the F-14 shot down at least 160 Iraqi aircraft.
As aforementioned, the F-14 Tomcat was among the aircraft operated by the US Navy’s TOPGUN School, which means it came as no surprise when it made an appearance in the 1986 film, Top Gun, starring Tom Cruise. The actor stars as naval aviator Lt. Pete “Maverick” Mitchell, who’s initially stationed aboard the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) and sent to TOPGUN School, where he flies F-14s.
Top Gun quickly became one of the highest-grossing films of 1986, and its theatrical success saw Navy recruitment jump nearly 500 percent; aspiring pilots dreamed of becoming the real-life Maverick.
The Lockheed A-12 spy plane was developed for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for service during Project Oxcart. While it had the potential for a long career, its niche but vital service led to its early retirement just 10 months after being deployed to Asia. During that time, the aircraft provided high-value photo intelligence in a number of missions – and looked cool doing it.
An aircraft for James Bond
The look of the supersonic Lockheed A-12 is something straight out of a spy movie. This reconnaissance aircraft was sleek and modern, and with a sultry matte black finish looked suited for the likes of James Bond.
A Lockheed A-12 displayed onboard the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum. (Photo Credit: Ad Meskens / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
It spanned 101 feet and had an extremely long, thin fuselage, which gave the spy plane its smooth, futuristic look. Likened to a Corvette in the sky by The National Interest, the A-12 not only looked pretty, but was functional, too.
The Lockheed A-12 is ordered by the CIA
First under discussion in the early 1950s, the Lockheed A-12 was intended to replace the U-2 for use as a reconnaissance aircraft against the Soviet Union. Competing against Convair’s Kingfish and FISH designs, Lockheed won the contract in 1959 to manufacture the A-12. Not long after, the company began production of the aircraft.
By January 1960, the CIA had ordered 12.
Lockheed A-12. (Photo Credit: Rob Kim / FilmMagic / Getty Images)
Plans to fly the A-12 over the Soviet Union were canceled not long after. In May 1960, pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down and captured while flying a U-2 over the USSR. Following this incident, the US and Soviet Union signed an agreement to no longer fly manned vehicles over the Soviet Union.
It was deemed too dangerous to fly over Soviet territory, and the A-12 was grounded.
Operation Black Shield
As early as 1965, the US was considering using the A-12 to spy on Chinese military activity. After two years of milling it over, the CIA decided to deploy the aircraft to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan. President Lyndon B. Johnson, upon hearing rumors the Northern Vietnamese had obtained surface-to-air missiles (SAM), approved the formal proposal to deploy the A-12 and Operation Black Shield began.
The first A-12 deployed to Kadena AB flew non-stop from the US to Japan, in a trip totaling six hours and six minutes. The second managed to complete the flight even faster, in five hours and 55 minutes. On May 29, 1967, the A-12 made its first operational flight, following one flight line over North Vietnam and another over the demilitarized zone between North and South Vietnam.
A Lockheed A-12 on display at the Medal of Honor Aircraft Pavilion at Battleship Memorial Park in Mobile, Alabama. (Photo Credit: GreaterPonce665 / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)
During this flight, the A-12 went undetected by North Vietnamese and Chinese radar and captured photographs that identified 70 of 190 known SAM sites. Encouraged, the CIA made many more operational flights over the area and eventually came to the conclusion there were no SAMs in North Vietnam.
Lockheed A-12 detected
In October 1967, pilot Dennis Sullivan was detected by Fan Song guidance radar, which caused the North Vietnamese to launch at least six missiles at the aircraft. The A-12’s supersonic capabilities allowed it to fly at a speed of Mach 3.2, but the missiles shot at Sullivan could fly at Mach 3.5. Looking in his rearview periscope, he saw the contrails of four missiles heading for his tail.
Lockheed A-12. (Photo Credit: Rob Kim / FilmMagic / Getty Images)
Luckily, Sullivan escaped the missiles and landed the A-12 at Kadena AB. It was later discovered that two metal fragments from a missile’s nose cone had become buried under his low left-wing, just short of the aircraft’s fuel tank. If the fragments had hit the tank, it could have proved fatal for Sullivan.
During a speech to discuss Project Oxcart, the pilot said, “They’d get right up behind me, very close, and all of a sudden there’d be a big red fireball – a big white cloud of smoke – and you’d immediately pull away from it.”
The Lockheed A-12’s early retirement
The Lockheed A-12’s retirement came about due to a number of factors, but the primary reason surrounded the development of the SR-71 Blackbird. At the same time Lockheed was working on the A-12, the company had already began conceptualizing the SR-71. It entered into service in 1966.
While it and the A-12 share a similar appearance, the SR-71 has features that differ significantly from its predecessor. The aircraft has two-seats and is longer in length than the A-12. It also has a longer-lasting fuel range.
SR-71B Blackbird conducting a training exercise, January 28, 1997. (Photo Credit: NASA / Getty Images)
The A-12 had its own benefits. It was lighter than the SR-71 and could go faster, but concerns over the cost of running both programs ultimately ended in the termination of A-12 project in 1968. Over the course of the aircraft’s short-lived career, A-12 pilots had flown 29 missions over Asia.
Nine A-12s remain on display in various museums across the United States.
The Lockheed AC-130 is a special operations gunship that can trace its history back to the Douglas C-47 Skytrain. Over its nearly 60 years of service, multiple variations have been developed to support troops across numerous conflicts. The ideal aircraft for nighttime close air support, the AC-130 made significant contributions during the Vietnam War.
Transforming the Douglas C-47 into the AC-47 Spooky
Douglas C-47 Skytrains were cargo planes produced in the thousands and used to transport cargo and paratroopers. What started out as an unarmed cargo plane soon turned into a fully-loaded gunship capable of supporting special operations under fire from enemy attacks.
When the US Air Force began experimenting with side-firing gunships in the 1960s, a C-47 underwent a transformation to become the first prototype, later designated the AC-47 Spooky.
A Douglas AC-47 Spooky on display at the Air Force Armaments Museum in Florida. (Photo Credit: Greg Goebel / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
The AC-47D carried a trio of M134 7.62 mm multibarreled mini-guns and was typically manned by a crew of seven. After some intensive field testing, the aircraft proved to be a powerful shelling tool, firing 4,500 rounds against enemy soldiers. By November 1965, 20 C-47s had been refurbished and brought back into service as AC-47D gunships.
The AC-47D saw its most notable service during the Vietnam War.
The AC-47 didn’t always succeed in combat
Although the AC-47s were proving their value, not everything went in their favor. On March 9, 1966, an AC-47 was sent to help defend the A Shau Special Forces camp, which was under attack by the North Vietnamese. Weather conditions were unfavorable, and the pilot was forced to fly below 400 feet. The North Vietnamese, equipped with .50-caliber machine guns, were able to blow both engines off of the AC-47 during its second pass over the area.
Night attack by a Douglas AC-47D Spooky over Saigon, 1968. This time lapse photo shows the tracer round trajectories. (Photo Credit: USAF / National Museum of the U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The aircraft crashed on the slope of a nearby mountain and the crew, who survived, quickly set up a perimeter. The enemy began to attack and attempted two assaults. While there were two casualties, the survivors were able to fend off the North Vietnamese until they were rescued.
Co-pilot Lt. Delbert Peterson was left behind and not found when Special Forces returned to the area to search for him. He was declared missing in action and, later, deemed killed in action.
Improved technologies lead to the development of the AC-130
By 1967, the Lockheed AC-130 prototype had been selected with the intention of being a direct replacement for the AC-47D. It had the capacity to fly faster, loiter longer and refuel mid-air. The aircraft arrived in South Vietnam later that year, and not longer after the AC-47 was deemed inadequate.
An AC-130A Spectre equipped with two 40 mm cannons, two 20 mm Vulcan cannons and two 7.62 mm miniguns. (Photo Credit: Eric Friedebach / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)
One of the most notable upgrades was the addition of the Black Crow magnetic anomaly detector, which detected minute variations in the Earth’s magnetic field. It was capable of detecting the unshielded ignition coils of Northern Vietnamese trucks hidden under the jungle brush and the hand-held transmitter signals of air controllers on the ground, to help locate targets.
The Lockheed AC-130 has supported special operations for decades
Lockheed AC-130s have supported special operations for nearly 60 years. With six variants, the aircraft has been involved in air interdiction, armed reconnaissance, combat search and rescue, forward air control, intelligence gathering, close air support and surveillance. Modern AC-130s have a top speed of 415 miles per hour, with a range of 3,000 miles.
US Air Force Special Forces Lockheed AC-130 dropping flares mid-flight. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Getty Images)
By performing the “pylon turn,” a flying technique where the aircraft makes a wide circle above the target area, AC-130s are able to produce a steady volume of fire against a target during extended loitering periods. Despite the predictability of the route, enemies often lack the necessary weaponry to effectively take down an AC-130.
For many US Air Force pilots, one of the most deadly places to battle the enemy during the Korean War was MiG Alley. The site of the first large-scale jet-versus-jet air fights, with the North American F-86 Sabre, it saw the communist forces make use of Soviet MiG-15s, which, it turns out, were largely piloted by veterans from the USSR.
The USSR shows support for China and North Korea
Prior to the start of the Korean War, Soviet pilots who had fought in World War II were sent to China to train the country’s newly-formed People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF). Both later unofficially committed support and supplies to North Korea once it began its fight against the South in 1950.
The North Koreans had a number of Soviet MiG-15s on retainer from the Second World War. The USSR supplied additional aircraft, as well. (Photo Credit: aviation-images.com / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
When they commenced the war, the North Koreans flew a small number of Soviet aircraft they’d had on retainer since the Second World War. However, their pilots were inexperienced and, once the UN committed air units to the conflict, they quickly became depleted against the US Air Force’s North American P-51 Mustangs.
The majority of the Soviet pilots were given preliminary training at bases in the Soviet Maritime Military District. Eventually, the 64th Fighter Aviation Corps (64th IAK) of the Soviet Air Forces became attached to the PLAAF under the 1st United Air Army.
Soviet MiG-15 jet fighters featured heavily during the Korean War, particularly in MiG Alley. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
On the same day the 64th IAK became attached to the 1st United Air Army, the Soviet pilots flying over North Korea engaged in their first dogfights with UN aircraft. They did well against the P-51s, forcing the US-based pilots to switch to the new F-86 Sabre.
Soviet aid was intended to be a secret
While it had long been an open secret that the Soviet Union had provided pilots to fight alongside the Chinese and North Korean forces, it wasn’t until its archives were opened that the long-denied fact was proven to be true.
In an attempt to hide their identities, Soviet pilots were made to wear civilian clothing or North Korean uniforms. Their fighters were covered in Chinese and North Korean markings, and they were ordered to only speak Korean when communicating over the radio. Soviet government officials also frequently denied their pilots were involved in direct combat in Korea.
MiG-15 under attack by a US Air Force fighter jet. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Despite these precautions, the Soviets were eventually found out. F-86 Sabre pilots reported seeing non-Asian flyers in the cockpits of MiG-15s, and, in March 1951, the 1st Radio Squadron, Mobile (RSM) picked up Russian ground controllers communicating with communist aircraft. Before long, the Soviet pilots were also caught speaking Russian.
The UN forces noticed, as well, that the North Korean and Chinese pilots were much less skilled in their abilities than the Soviets, leading to the latter being nicknamed “Honchos” – Japanese for “Boss.”
What was MiG Alley?
MiG Alley was created out of Soviet Dictator Joseph Stalin‘s fears of having the country’s MiG-15s captured by the UN forces. He was worried about the consequences such an incident would cause and thus ordered his pilots to not fly too far south. As such, they rarely flew south of the Chunchŏn River.
Map showing the location of MiG Alley. (Photo Credit: Triggerhappy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
With the southern border of MiG Alley established, it’s time to look at the north. The primary MiG-15 base was located just across the Yalu River in Antung Province, Manchuria. It was surrounded by additional bases that, too, housed the aircraft and their pilots, and together they formed the “Antung Complex.”
The Soviet forces ensured the bases were equipped with the latest defense technologies. These included searchlights, radar installations, anti-aircraft guns and ground control systems. The bases’ locations also allowed officials to rotate MiG-15 units, which, in theory, would allow them to constantly deploy well-rested pilots and reduce casualties.
North American F-86 Sabre pilots walking through the torii gate at Kimpo (K-18) Air Base. While their history dates back to Japanese Shinto shrines, they became a symbol of the US Air Force during the Korean War. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Having their bases situated on the Chinese side of the border was important to the communist forces, as it was against the rules of engagement for UN pilots to cross the Yalu River and attack. This created a rather tight area for air-to-air combat, making the fighting between pilots particularly dangerous – and difficult.
MiG-15s versus F-86 Sabres
Right off the top, the MiG-15s appeared to be the better aircraft. They carried one 37 mm Nudelman N-37 Cannon and two 23 mm Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 cannons. While able to inflict damage against UN aircraft, the weapons fired at a relatively slow pace. Issues also arose in 1953, when the majority of the MiG-15s were being flown by pilots from China and North Korea, as opposed to the Soviet Union.
MiG-15 being shot down by a North American F-86 Sabre. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The primary bases for the US Air Force’s F-86 Sabres were at Suwon (K-13) and Kimpo (K-18). The F-86 was America’s modern fighter, equipped with six Browning M3 .50-caliber machine guns that, while able to fire at a high rate, could only cause light damage against the communists’ MiG-15s. The aircraft also wasn’t as agile, couldn’t fly as high or rise as fast as the enemy aircraft, but made up for this with its aerodynamics, radar gunsight and the speeds at which it could dive.
Oftentimes, the dogfights occurred once UN aircraft entered the airspace of MiG Alley. On the Manchurian side of the border, MiG-15 pilots laid in wait and, once they spotted the enemy fighters, swooped down from high altitudes to attack. When they ran into trouble, they flew back to China. While the UN forces were technically prevented from crossing the border, many pilots took advantage of the “hot pursuit” exception to do so and adopted a “code of silence” about their patrols.
North American F-86 Sabres put up a strong fight against the Soviet MiG-15s in Korea. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
Despite having an advantage in MiG Alley, the communist pilots couldn’t compete with the better-trained pilots from the US Air Force. While initially the kill ratio was said to be 10:1, in favor of the UN forces, it was later changed to 8:1.
Numerous air aces came out of MiG Alley
The dogfights in MiG Alley produced a number of air aces throughout the Korean War. The top flyers were on the Soviet side, with Nikolai Vasilyevich Sutyagin claiming the most kills at either 21 or 22, depending on the source. Other notable Soviet pilots were Yevgeny Georgievich Pepelyayev with 19 aircraft downed and Lev Kirillovich Shchukin with 17.
Yevgeny Georgievich Pepelyayev downed 19 aircraft during the Korean War. (Photo Credit: Mil.ru / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 4.0)
On the UN side, the top fighter ace was Capt. Joseph C. McConnell Jr., who downed 16 MiG-15s, including three in one day. He sadly died shortly after returning home in 1954, when the F-86H he was test flying crashed following a control malfunction, which was later attributed to a missing bolt.
The second-highest-scoring ace was also the UN’s first jet-versus-jet ace, Maj. James “Jabby” Jabara. Prior to flying in Korea, he’d flown P-51 Mustangs in Europe during WWII, scoring 1.5 air victories against the Germans. The third highest UN ace of the conflict was Frederick Corbin “Boots” Blesse, who downed nine MiG-15s during his two combat tours in Korea. In total, he completed 35 Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star missions, 67 with the P-51 and 121 missions while flying the F-86.
Capt. Joseph C. McConnell Jr. was the top UN fighter ace of the Korean War. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force)
Over the course of the Korean War, it’s claimed that 30 F-86 pilots were shot down behind enemy lines. Their fates have never been properly established. Those who survived and were later repatriated after the armistice reported being interrogated by Korean, Chinese and Soviet officials, further proving the open secret of the USSR’s involvement in the conflict.
SR-71B Blackbird aerial reconnaissance aircraft photographed over snow capped mountains in 1995.
Aviation technology rapidly advanced during the 20th century, but as the aircraft advanced, so too did the machines and technology designed to detect them. In the early 1960s, Lockheed set out to make a sleek and fast reconnaissance aircraft, made out of the best material there was: titanium. The issue, however, was that most titanium came from the Soviet Union.
A special aircraft requires special materials
The SR-71 Blackbird project was run through Lockheed’s Skunk Works. The aircraft was intended to be an update on the A-12, the company’s previous reconnaissance plane. The lead engineer on both projects was Clarence “Kelly” Johnson.
Developers working on the project were under intense pressure and tight deadlines from the US government. During his 1964 presidential campaign, Republican candidate Barry Goldwater slammed President Lyndon B. Johnson for allowing the United States to fall behind the USSR when it came to military technology.
A Lockheed engineer working on an SR-71 Blackbird. (Photo Credit: Heritage Space / Heritage Images / Getty Images)
The SR-71 was designed to be bigger than the A-12, so it could carry more fuel and allow for the installation of a dual-cockpit. At the same time, the updated aircraft needed to be faster than its predecessor. The project was challenging for the engineers at Lockheed, with Johnson recalling a number of years later, “Everything had to be invented. Everything.”
Lockheed engineers came up with a solution
The SR-71 Blackbird was meant to be blazingly fast, capable of traveling up to 2,000 MPH and holding this speed for hours at a time. The issue was that this created atmospheric friction that could melt the airframe, as its edges exceeded 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
The only solution to the problem was to clad the plane with titanium. As Lockheed describes, “Titanium alloy was the only option for the airframe – providing the strength of stainless steel, a relatively light weight and durability at the excessive temperatures.”
Basic products fabricated from titanium. (Photo Credit: CSIRO / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)
The material quickly proved to be difficult to work with, as it was incredibly sensitive and brittle. The engineers at Skunk Works would break the alloy while working on it with cadmium-plated steel tools. As a result, new tools needed to be built out of titanium. The machinists on the line also had to be trained on how to best work with the material.
Titanium wasn’t readily obtainable
Along with the material being difficult to work with, titanium was also hard to find. The US didn’t have the ore necessary to produce it. The biggest producer of the material was the Soviet Union. At the time, both countries were in the midst of the Cold War, and the US government didn’t want to give the Soviets any hints as to what they were up to.
A Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird lands during an air show, 1974. (Photo Credit: Evening Standard / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Col. Rich Graham, an SR-71 pilot and former wing commander, explained to the BBC:
“The airplane is [92 percent] titanium inside and out. Back when they were building the airplane the United States didn’t have the ore supplies – an ore called rutile ore. It’s a very sandy soil and it’s only found in very few parts of the world. The major supplier of the ore was the USSR. Working through Third World countries and bogus operations, they were able to get the rutile ore shipped to the United States to build the SR-71.”
The SR-71 Blackbird proved itself during the Yom Kippur War
The US was very interested in the Yom Kippur War, a conflict between Israel and a coalition of Arab states – and the SR-71 Blackbird was the perfect reconnaissance tool to see what was happening. Pilots were deployed on missions ranging from between three and four hours, with some taking as long as 11 hours to complete, and they were tasked with gaining information about the positions of both sides.
The SR-71 was heavily used in reconnaissance missions during the Yom Kippur War, October 6-25, 1973. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Col. Rich Graham told the BBC:
“The President wanted to find out whether the Arabs and the Israelis had really moved back from the front line like they said they did. We went over there, took the imagery, came back and showed photographic proof they were both lying about where their forces were. He called both countries and said, ‘Get them back, I’ve got proof you’re not where you’re supposed to be.’ That’s what ended the Yom Kippur War.”
The legacy of the SR-71 Blackbird
The SR-71 Blackbird was operational from 1966 through to 1998, although NASA continued to use the aircraft for an additional year. During its service, it was continuously the fastest aircraft of its time. In addition to the Yom Kippur War, the SR-71 was also utilized during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, the 1986 US raid on Libya and helped reveal Iranian Silkworm missile batteries.
Astronaut and Senator John Glenn was upset about the retirement of the SR-71 Blackbird. (Photo Credit: ROBERTO SCHMIDT / AFP / Getty Images)Not everyone was happy when the decision was made to retire the aircraft. Former astronaut and Senator John Glenn wound up writing to President George H.W. Bush:
“Mr. President, the termination of the SR-71 was a grave mistake and could place our nation at a serious disadvantage in the event of a future crisis. Yesterday’s historic transcontinental flight was a sad memorial to our short-sighted policy in strategic aerial reconnaissance.”
The popular Tom Cruise movie Top Gun debuted in theaters in 1986, and features Cruise and his co-stars attending the US Navy’s TOPGUN school – officially known as the Strike Fighter Tactics Instructor program. It was an immediate hit, and the service capitalized on this success. It sent recruiters to cinemas across the United States, hoping to convince young people to enlist.
Here is the history of the Navy’s elite TOPGUN school.
The US Navy evaluated its aviators after Operation Rolling Thunder
From 1965-68, in the midst of the Vietnam War, the US ran Operation Rolling Thunder. The bombing mission faced severe resistance from North Vietnamese troops flying Soviet-built MiG jets and using surface-to-air weapons. The effective air defense mounted by the North Vietnamese forced the US to end the operation in 1968, with it widely considered to be a failure.
A year after, the Navy published the Ault Report, following an investigation led by Capt. Frank Ault. It concluded that the Navy’s failures during the operation were due to pilots not being properly trained in air combat maneuvers. The US Air Force concluded its own issues were caused by technological problems.
The Ault Report recommended the Navy open a school to better train its pilots.
The TOPGUN school opened in 1969
The TOPGUN school, then known as the Navy Fighter Weapons School, officially opened in March 1969. The Navy found it was important to have the best pilots acting as instructors, and named Dan Pedersen as its first head instructor. Pedersen, who served in Vietnam, was adept at flying a number of military aircraft, including the Douglas F4D Skyray and the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.
He recruited eight other pilots to help him train the Navy’s future aviators.
The aim was “to train aircrew in all aspects of aerial combat to be carried out with the utmost professionalism.” According to an exhibit onboard the USS Midway (CV-41) Museum, “the four-week course started with a team of instructors covering US and Soviet aircraft types, weapons systems, and fighter training tactics in a 50-foot-long metal trailer at [Naval Air Station] Miramar.”
The TOPGUN course is grueling
The TOPGUN school was, at first, run on a shoestring budget. Its first headquarters was a stolen Airstream trailer. The students were given what was considered a Master’s level education on everything they needed to know about both their own aircraft and those flown by the enemy.
The tactics taught were constantly updated as America’s opponents changed their equipment and tactics.
The first classes of the TOPGUN school were held in a stolen Airstream trailer. (Photo Credit: Landre / ClassicStock / Getty Images)
There was also little downtime for students and instructors. Pederson later explained:
“We actually worked seven days a week probably, starting at 4:30 in the morning. On Fridays, I let the youngest guys who lived in La Jolla out early, so they could party — that’s what young guys are supposed to do — but most of us never got home during the week. I spent many nights sleeping in my car.”
Results came fast
Once the Navy aviators were trained, they returned to Vietnam, and it didn’t take long for the methods taught in class to bear fruit. Prior to the program, the Navy kill-to-loss ratio against the North Vietnamese MiGs had been around 2:1. After the program, this number rose from 12:1.
By comparison, the Air Force, which had not instituted a training program, actually saw its kill-to-loss ratio drop.
US Navy pilots prepare to take off from Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Japan during the Vietnam War. (Photo Credit: Robert Alexander / Getty Images)
The Navy took notice of the success. TOPGUN did not have to remain in a stolen Airstream; the school soon had increased funding that allowed for additional aircraft, staffing and infrastructure. In 1996, it was moved to Naval Air Station Fallon, Nevada, where it merged with the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center – now known as the Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center.
The program is still in place today, over 50 years since its inception, showing the continued value it gives to the service.
Top Gun lets the public in on the story
Author Ehud Yonay wrote an article, titled Top Guns, for a 1983 issue of California Magazine. The piece focused on the TOPGUN school and the large number of ace fighter pilots living in San Diego. The decision was made to produce a movie based on the article, and filmmakers reached out to the Navy for help.
Tom Cruise starred as Pete “Maverick” Mitchell in the film Top Gun, 1986. (Photo Credit: Paramount Pictures / MovieStillsDB)
Involved in the making of the film was Pete “Viper” Pettigrew, a veteran naval aviator who’d served as a TOPGUN instructor. The movie was a massive hit, and many in the US military approved. Dan Pederson revealed that, while he was worried the film didn’t capture the high stakes involved in aerial warfare, it did feature “some of the best footage of tactical airplanes ever captured.”
