Category: Historic

D-Day was one of the most pivotal moments in history. An enormous invasion force risked everything to gain a toehold in continental Europe, cracking the Nazi stranglehold on France.

This was not an easy task, and the Allies realized the tantamount importance that this battle not only was won, but stayed won. D-Day was an enormous logistical undertaking, and perhaps the least known part of this was Operation Pluto.

This covert operation, often dubbed “D-Day’s Greatest Secret,” played a crucial role in the success of the Allied forces in Europe. Its mission was to supply the Allied war machine with the fuel it needed as it marched ever onward toward Germany by laying pipelines down beneath the English Channel.

Logistics wins wars and Operation Pluto was one of the greatest logistical missions ever undertaken.

A Covert Engineering Marvel

Operation Pluto, also known as the Pipeline Under the Ocean or Pipeline Underwater Transportation Oil, was a clandestine engineering project conceived by the British government during World War II. It was designed to solve a logistical conundrum the Allies were facing having successfully completed the D-Day landings in 1944.

The Allies were making significant advances into German-occupied territory and needed a reliable and efficient means of transporting fuel across the English Channel. Without a supply line, the invasion was on borrowed time.

Up until this point the Allies had been reliant on coastal tankers which came with several severe drawbacks- they were vulnerable to harsh weather, attack from the air, and had to be offloaded into vulnerable shoreside tanks. Operation Pluto on the other hand centered around the construction of an ingenious network of pipelines laid on the seabed, connecting the Isle of Wight to Cherbourg in Normandy, France.

These pipelines, comprising both flexible Hais and rigid Hamel types, were engineered to withstand the harsh conditions of the ocean floor. The flexibility of the Hais pipelines allowed them to be wound onto large drums for easier transport and deployment, while the Hamel pipelines were designed for more challenging terrains.

Outside of wartime, this would have been an impressive engineering feat, during wartime it was a marvel. For the operation to succeed it had to be carried out under complete operational secrecy. This wonder of covert engineering played a pivotal role in sustaining the momentum of the Allied advance into enemy territory.

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In essence, Operation Pluto was intended to be a lifeline, a hidden artery feeding the Allied war machine and ensuring sustained pressure on the Axis powers. The success of this covert mission would determine the ability of the Allied forces to outmaneuver and ultimately defeat the German forces on the European front.

The success of Operation Pluto hinged not only on its engineering brilliance but also on those involved keeping the operation’s existence hidden from enemy forces. The secretive nature of the operation was paramount to its success, requiring meticulous planning and strict security measures.

Like any secret operation, the pipeline plan needed a codename, and Operation Pluto was chosen. Why Pluto? Probably because in Roman mythology Pluto was the god of the underworld and these pipes were going deep under the ocean’s surface.

The engineers working on the design of the pipelines referred to the project as Operation Tombola, simply because tombolas have nothing to do with pipelines (unlike “pluto” which literally stood for “pipe line under the ocean”). The development and deployment of the pipelines were classified at the highest levels, with access limited to those with a need-to-know basis.

The problem with secrets is that the more people who know about them, the more likely it is for a leak to occur. Operation Pluto wasn’t just an engineering feat, there was a lot of construction needed too. Construction sites were strategically chosen, and workers involved in the project were often unaware of the broader context of their efforts.

The flexible Hais pipelines were wound onto large drums and transported under the guise of other military supplies, further concealing their true purpose. As for the rigid Hamel pipelines, their deployment required specialized equipment, which was transported discreetly to the chosen locations.

The laying of the pipelines, which required an incredible degree of precision, was carried out under the cover of darkness to avoid detection. This was no easy feat when one considers the challenges of working on the ocean floor. Surveillance and reconnaissance efforts by both air and sea were intensified to detect any signs of suspicious activity that could reveal the operation.

It’s amazing to think they managed to complete the operation without the enemy realizing. In this cloak-and-dagger world of wartime secrecy, Operation Pluto’s construction unfolded behind a curtain of strategic misdirection and careful concealment.

Success or Failure?

There is some disagreement between historians as to whether Operation Pluto was truly a success. Some claim that Operation Pluto succeeded in its primary mission: to establish a reliable and efficient means of transporting fuel across the English Channel to support the advancing Allied armies.

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The undersea pipelines played a crucial role in sustaining the momentum of the Allied offensive by providing a steady and secure source of fuel for vehicles, tanks, and aircraft. This ensured that the Allied forces could maintain their push into German-occupied territory without the logistical hindrances that had plagued previous military campaigns.

These historians would say that the impact of Operation Pluto on the overall war effort was profound. By circumventing the need for traditional fuel supply routes, which were vulnerable to disruption by enemy forces, Pluto provided a strategic advantage to the Allies. The operation contributed to the flexibility and mobility of the Allied forces, allowing them to outmaneuver the German defenses and exploit weaknesses in the enemy lines.

Others, however, are less convinced that Operation Pluto had such a profound effect. The operation was plagued by a series of delays and technical difficulties. Of the two lines, Bambi and Dumbo, Bambi was the most troublesome to get working.

The laying of the pipelines across the Bristol Channel and Solent had been carried out by expert technicians guided by the designers. Laying the pipeline on the French end, however, came down to naval laying parties who weren’t as experienced. Repeated setbacks even led to the Allies considering abandoning the operation completely.

In the end, Bambi only ran from 22 September 1944 to October 3, 1944. Just 3,300 long tons (3,400 t, 4,250,000 L) had been pumped. Dumbo, on the other hand, ran for much longer and managed to carry 180 million imperial gallons (820 million liters) of petrol, a much more impressive feat.

A Solid Foundation

The ultimate success of Operation Pluto was evident in its ability to meet the critical need for a secure and reliable fuel supply for the advancing Allied forces. By surmounting the logistical challenges that had hindered previous military campaigns, Pluto became a silent architect of victory, enabling the Allies to maintain their offensive momentum and press further into enemy territory.

Top Image: Pipe lengths stored for Operation Pluto. Source: Official Photographer / Public Domain.

The state of King Tut’s burial chamber raised concerns in 2012, and these prompted conservationist Adam Lowe and his team to embark on a groundbreaking mission. Faced with the challenge of decay, they harnessed technology to create a meticulous 3D model spanning 860 square feet (80 square meters).

This innovative approach allowed for the preservation of intricate details beneath the surface, previously unseen by the naked eye. By sharing the high-resolution scans with the academic community, Lowe facilitated unprecedented scrutiny of Tut’s burial chamber.

Dr. Nicholas Reeves, captivated by the surface scan’s revelations, made a remarkable observation—an indication of two potentially concealed doorways on the north wall. Stripped of paint, the scans exposed faint lines that Reeves believes outline hidden passages.

Astonishingly, these subtle markings, overlooked since Howard Carter’s discovery in the 1920s, hint at the possibility of undiscovered spaces within the iconic tomb.

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Top image: Tutankhamun’s tomb which may contain secret doors. Source: Sergii Figurnyi / Adobe Stock.

In 1836, three boys were out hunting for rabbit holes and found a puzzling group of 17 dolls in a small niche near the rocky structure called Arthur’s Seat at Holyrood Park. Oddly, each doll lay securely in its own coffin. Later, people named them the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls because they assumed the strange figurines were related to the 17 murder victims of William Burke and William Hare in Edinburgh, Scotland, during the late 1820s. However, whether or not this was true, and who made the dolls and hid them in the nook, or why, is still a mystery.

This image from the National Museum of Scotland shows five of eight figurines and their coffins with intricate metal details.

Discovery of the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls

As the boys looked for rabbit burrows, they spotted a strange opening about one foot wide and one foot deep in the rocky hillside. A few pieces of slate stones were stuffed into the opening and protected the coffins from the weather.

Initially, the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls, also known as the “Lilliputian coffins” and the “Fairy Coffins”, didn’t appear to be anything special. Even the children who found them did not realize their value. The youngsters supposedly pitched the dolls at one another and destroyed about half of them. Only eight unopened coffins made it down from the hillside, which sat about 820 feet high overlooking the city of Edinburgh.

Arthur’s Seat, where three boys purportedly found 17 figurines interred in coffins. CC3.0 David Monniaux

Descriptions of the Dolls and Coffins

The number of dolls appeared to represent the bodies sold to Dr. Knox (including the one that died of natural causes). Dating of the fabrics used for the burial cloths and the threads places their origins around the same time as the murders. However, whoever made the dolls and stashed them may have done so numerous times between 1800 and 1830. According to author Charles Fort, someone had placed the dolls and their coffins one-by-one in the cave in three levels. The bottom level of eight had the most decomposition in the coffins and their contents. The next level up, consisting of another row of eight dolls, was in slightly better shape. There was only one doll on the upper level. This one seemed the newest and lead many people to believe that more dolls would have followed in that row at some future time.

Most people assume the varying degrees of decomposition reflect different times of placement. However, it is possible that some dolls may have been more exposed to weathering than others. Analysis of the figurines indicates that they probably started out as toys or something other than corpses. None of the figures had closed eyes, and they all had black feet as if they were wearing boots. One figure had its arms removed before it could be fit into its coffin. Apparently, someone then repurposed the figures into corpses after building the coffins.

Report in the Scotsman

According to Mike Dash from Smithsonian, the Scotsman newspaper reported that each coffin:

“contained a miniature figure of the human form cut out in wood, the faces in particular being pretty well executed. They were dressed from head to foot in cotton clothes, and decently laid out with a mimic representation of all the funereal trappings which usually form the last habiliments of the dead. The coffins are about three or four inches in length, regularly shaped, and cut out from a single piece of wood, with the exception of the lids, which are nailed down with wire sprigs or common brass pins. The lid and sides of each are profusely studded with ornaments, formed with small pieces of tin, and inserted in the wood with great care and regularity.”

The coffins were made from Scots pine. There are some inconsistencies about their construction. Therefore, experts believe two different people may have created them. The maker carved out one solid piece of wood for the coffin and then placed another piece on top for the lid.

Brief Story of Burke and Hare

As their name suggests, the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls are related to the sinister deeds of two men: William Burke and William Hare. Both were Irishmen who met in Scotland and became close friends in the 1820s. Hare ran a boarding house with his wife. There, one of the tenants died of natural causes. Burke and Hare sold the body of the man to a doctor at Edinburgh University for use as a medical school cadaver.

William Burke (L) and William Hare (R), as they appeared in court. George Andrew Lutenor, c. 1829.

At the time, the medical schools had a shortage of bodies to use for dissection. They were only allowed to use executed criminals. The problem was, however, that criminals were facing execution less frequently. To supplement their needs, anatomists began purchasing corpses from body snatchers.

Edinburgh’s Underground City

Dr. Knox, of the University of Edinburgh, relied on Burke and Hare to furnish his anatomy school with plenty of fresh cadavers. After they sold the deceased tenant’s body for 7 pounds — a significant amount in those days — Burke and Hare realized that they could make a sizeable living in corpses. Future fresh corpses went for 10 pounds.

After 17 victims, police caught the duo, and Hare made a deal to turn King’s evidence in exchange for his freedom. He testified against Burke, who died by execution, and in a morbid twist of fate, the judge sentenced him to public dissection. Anatomists saved several of his body parts, including a death mask of his face. Hare walked. No one knows what happened to him.

Burke’s death mask and Hare’s life mask. Anatomical Museum of Edinburgh University. Image: Kim Traynor

Theories About the Murder Dolls

One theory is that one of the murderers may have felt such guilt about the victims who never got a proper funeral, that he made coffins and gave the victims a symbolic burial. Others theorize that they represent sailors lost at sea or that Celtic magic or Voodoo rituals were their true purpose.

If someone made the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls before the murders became public knowledge, only a handful of people could have carved them. There was Dr. Knox, who likely knew the corpses he was purchasing were murder victims. There were Burke and Hare, Hare’s wife, and Burke’s wife. Dr. Knox’s brother possibly knew as well. One of these people could have made the dolls out of guilt or for religious reasons. Alternatively, one of the killers could have made them as souvenirs and stashed them in the cave. Theoretically, Hare could have made them after Burke’s murder trial and put them there as well. However, he fled town rather quickly to avoid the angry public.

Some theorists suggest that Burke couldn’t have made the dolls since there are 17, and he would not have had the time after police found their last victim. The arrest happened too quickly for him to stash the last doll. However, it is possible that Burke and Hare actually had an additional victim. If this is the case, he may have stashed the last figurine before police stopped them. People who knew Burke claimed that he was a very religious man. Although scientists collected DNA from Burke’s body, they were unable to acquire DNA from the dolls and look for a match.

The main issue with the theory that the dolls resulted from the Burke and Hare murders, also called the West Port Murders, is that at least 12 of their victims were women. The figurines are clearly all-male wearing men’s burial attire. (Emery 2014).

If someone placed them in the niche to give a group of people a proper burial, was it due to some disaster in which people perished? Author Jeff Nisbet believes they resulted from the populist uprising Radical War of 1820. Rather than the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls, he calls them the Arthur’s Seat Coffins. He states:

Authenticity of the Dolls

Many people have accepted that the figurines and their coffins are genuine. However, there are those who believe they are a hoax. None of the children gave any first-hand testimony about them. What happened to the other nine dolls? When the boys realized that people seemed interested in the wooden objects, wouldn’t they have gone back to find the “remains” of the other figurines up on the hillside? Not knowing the truth adds one more dimension to the mystery.

According to Smithsonian, the boys’ schoolmaster acquired the set. He then took it to his archaeological society, and the set amazed the group. Oddly, it wound up under the ownership of a jeweler, who displayed the objects in his personal museum until he retired and sold the set at auction for 4 pounds around 1845. Private collectors maintained the Burke and Hare Murder Dolls for the remainder of the century. In 1901, Christina Couper donated the entire set of eight to the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. But the mystery of Edinburgh’s coffin dolls endures.

Every day, five times a day, Muslims across the globe face Mecca and pray. When they face Mecca, it is not Mecca that they are truly facing, it is a cube-shaped building known as the Ka’aba or simply Kaaba. This building is also known as Baitullah or “The House of Allah.” On the east corner of this revered building, there is a cornerstone known as the Black Stone of the Ka’aba. It is steeped in mystery, legend, and speculation.

Close-up of the Black Stone or Hajar al-Aswad. Photo credit: makkahmadeenah on Instagram.

The Ka’aba resides in Makka or Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It stands in the relative center of the Al-Haram Mosque, where millions of Muslims flock every year to see this building and walk around it seven times. Most of the year, it is covered in black cloth. Beneath the black cloth is a stone building that may date back as far as 2030 B.C.E. Each side of the cube measures about 60 ft. across. There is a gold door on the southeast side. Inside, there is a polished marble floor and three pillars.

Muslims believe that Allah himself ordered that the Ka’aba be constructed. The story is that Abraham built the mosque with his oldest son, Ishmael. The building is said to be the likeness of Allah’s home in heaven. It is supposedly the oldest mosque on Earth. Historians believe it was once used by pagans, before Islam came into being. Likewise, the Black Stone is said to have been placed there and used by pagans, who were worshipful of such natural things. Islam forbids idolatry, so the Black Stone is not revered by them. They tell a completely different story about what the rock is and why it is so important.

There are various, slightly different, versions of the following story regarding the significance and origin of the Kaaba Black Stone. All are similar. When Adam was banished from Paradise or The Garden of Eden, he was filled with sin. The Black Stone was given to Adam to erase him of this sin and give him entrance into heaven. It is said to be from Heaven. At the time it belonged to Adam, it was white. Now, it is black because it has absorbed so much sin.

Muslims believe that the prophet Mohammad kissed the Black Stone and so, they kiss the Black Stone, if it is possible, during their obligatory, at least once a lifetime, trip to Ka’aba. If they are unable to kiss the stone, they point to it every time they pass on their seven-circle journey around the Ka’aba. This is a story steeped in religion and important religious figures. Therefore, the Black Stone has great importance as being linked to Allah, Adam and Mohammad. However, those outside of the Muslim faith have little to go by.

Another closeup of the Black Stone: Image: By Amerrycan Muslim (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0]

The Black Stone of the Ka’aba has been described as somewhere around 2 ft. in length. It is broken into roughly seven pieces, which are held together in a silver frame. The surface is certainly a blackish color, but there is some speculation that the color derives from all of the hands and mouths that have touched it, as well as the oils with which it is anointed. Not knowing the true color for sure makes it difficult to say just what it is. There is also a problem with getting a sample. Taking a sample would be extremely disrespectful. It might even be dangerous. There are stories about people being killed for messing around with the stone and the Ka’aba.

Thus far, speculation about the Kaaba Black Stone regard it being old and placed there by pagans. Those interested have postulated that the stone may be glass, agate or meteorite. It may also be glass from a meteorite. It is obviously brittle or it has been damaged by something very strong, which is certainly possible, considering it has been stolen and in the midst of a war in its history. Evidence pointing to any of these theories is slim, though the meteorite theory is the most popular. In the end, the stone holds much less importance to non-Muslims. The mystery of its origins will have to be left to myth and legend for now.

Who Discovered America First

Scholars have tried to follow Columbus’s written sailing log to arrive at a conclusion. Some have even tried to track the voyage backward from a specific island to the Canary Islands, where his trek across the Atlantic began.

Diary of Christopher Columbus’ Landing

There is a diary of Columbus that one would think could provide a definitive answer. Unfortunately, only about 20% of the manuscript was actually written by Columbus. The remaining text is probably written by Bartolome de Las Casas, a Dominican friar some twenty years later.

The description in the diary of that initial island is also controversial. The documentation of agricultural features of the island are quite vague and could apply to most of the islands in the area. An example is “…they saw trees, very green, many streams of water, and diverse sorts of fruits.“

One key phrase: “una laguna en medio muy grande” could, according to historian Paul Aron, mean either a large lake in the middle of an island (of which some of the candidates have) or a large lagoon in the middle of the shoreline.

In the diary, Columbus clearly states that he landed on the island he named “San Salvador” and there is indeed an island called San Salvador in the Bahamas. Case closed? Unfortunately not. That island was only named “San Salvador” in the 1920s. Prior to that, it was known as “Watling’s Island.” However, San Salvador is one of the most likely islands where first contact was made.

Locals Called It Guanahani

The Taino Indian natives welcomed Columbus and his landing crew. They all exchanged gifts with one another during the first meeting. Columbus gave red hats and glass beads. Afterward, the natives provided parrots, balls of cotton thread and spears. None of the natives wore clothing, and only one young female was initially seen. But in this historic meeting, the Taino somehow communicated to Columbus that their island is called Guanahani.

According to Columbus’ journal, a reef encircled most of the island:

They called out to us loudly to come to land, but I was apprehensive on account of a reef of rocks, which surrounds the whole island, although within there is a depth of water and room sufficient for all the ships of Christendom, with a very narrow entrance.

National Geographic Study on the Landing Site

For the 500th anniversary of the landing, the National Geographic Society funded a one million dollar study that proposed the island of Samana Cay as the landing site. However, this was not accepted by many scholars. Alternative islands such as the Grand Turk, the Plana Cays, Mayaguana, and Conception Island still have their supporters.

The only one who never joined in this debate was Columbus himself. From what we know, even as new explorers were picking over his discovery and agreeing it was new land to be conquered, Columbus insisted until his death that he had landed on islands very near Asia.

It may never be possible to re-trace Columbus’s voyage to answer the question of where did Columbus land. At least not with certainty. But, that question is almost insignificant, however, compared to the global effect the discovery had on both sides of the Atlantic.

About 2000 years ago, someone in Rævemose near Gundestrup, Denmark, carefully buried a stack of silver panels tucked into a semi-circular silver bowl. Each of the panels revealed exquisite scenes of Celtic mythology and religion consisting of animals, heroes, and gods, and they were superb examples of highly crafted metalwork. On May 28, 1891, a peat collector working in the bogs unearthed the silver panels. Archaeologists studied the pieces and realized that when fully assembled with the bowl, they formed a large vessel. This historical and mysterious treasure is the Gundestrup cauldron.

The Gundestrup cauldron is located at the National Museum of Denmark. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Nationalmuseet.

Sophus Müller, a Danish archaeologist, reassembled the cauldron after the discovery. Five of the panels are larger rectangles and seven are smaller and more squarish. There were originally eight smaller panels, but one was missing since the discovery. The large semi-spherical bowl is the base of the cauldron. The seven cauldron panels form the outside of the vessel while the five larger panels face inward. Separate silver rims connect the pieces together. Müller sent the metal for analysis, and the results indicated 97% silver and 3% gold. The Gundestrup cauldron fully assembled is 27 inches in diameter and 16-1/2 inches tall. It weighs nearly 20 pounds.

For many years scholars believed the vessel originated from Celtic Gaul, however, upon further examination they reformed their opinions. It seems the spectacular vessel it is not just Celtic after all, but an intermingling of different cultures.

Where Was the Gundestrup Cauldron Made?

The history of the Gundestrup cauldron dates back to between 150 BCE and the birth of Christ. Today, most experts believe that the Celtic cauldron was forged in the Balkans with Thracian metalworking. But clearly, someone who was possibly of Celtic origin and well-versed in Celtic religion took great care to ensure that many significant religious icons were displayed on the vessel.

Celtic Expansion in the East

By tracing the movements of the Celts, we may be able to glean some information about the potential history of the Gundestrup cauldron. Trade and migrations had been taking place across vast distances between the east and west well before the creation of the cauldron. During the “great Celtic migration” in 279 BCE, the Celts from the west invaded the Balkans, which included Thrace (Bulgaria and parts of Turkey and Greece). From there they moved into Anatolia (Turkey). They established themselves in upper Anatolia, which the locals would call Galatia. Those Celts became known as the Galatians (Gauls). Celtic presence in Galatia was long-lived, and because the Galatians were adept warriors, many regional forces hired Celts to fight battles in the Thracian region and into West Asia Minor.

The Roman Republic became the Roman Empire in 27 BCE and the empire was expanding. In 64 BCE Galatia became a Roman state. Subsequently, the Romans conferred the title of “King of the Galatians” to the Celtic leader, Deiotarius. The name Deiotarius means “divine bull,” and the significance of this is explained later. The area around the Balkans was very multi-ethnic, and at that time, the Thracians and the Scythians (North and Eastern Black Sea) had some of the finest metalwork.

Lughnasadh: The Celtic Pagan Harvest Festival

Thus, the cauldron may have been commissioned by a Celt who at one time lived or fought in the Balkan/Anatolian region. How the vessel made its way to Gundestrup, Denmark, is a mystery.

Important Symbols on the Cauldron

Central Bowl Bull

Without question, the most interesting facet of the Gundestrup cauldron is the numerous images that embellish its surface. There are symbols of fertility and destruction, life and death, and beauty. Most prominent of these is a medallion-like depiction of a bull hunt. This metallurgical piece of art forms the base plate of the cauldron. Additionally, experts believe that golden horns were once attached to the bull’s head. The bull motif is also accompanied by three dogs. One of the dogs seems to be hurt or killed; it is curled up at the rear of the bull and appears less prominent. In contrast, the other two dogs appear to be hunting the bull. Above the bull, a female warrior is leaping into the air with a raised sword ready to strike the powerful beast.

Center medallion of bull hunting scene at the bottom of the cauldron. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Claude Valette CC.

Since antiquity, the bull possessed very strong magical symbolism to the Celts. It represented power, strength, and virility. Bull sacrifices were common, and there is an early Irish story, Táin Bó Cúailnge or Cattle Raid of Cooley, which involved two supernatural bulls. The golden horns of the bull in the cauldron were also significant.

[blockquote align=”none” author=”Miranda Green”]Bull horns were a highly potent symbol adopted from anthropomorphic deities, the horns on the animal itself having attracted reverence from great antiquity.[/blockquote]

Now in reference to the Celtic king of Galatia, noted above. His name, Deiotarus or “divine bull,” reflected the deep respect and perhaps reverence that his people felt for him.

Warriors and the Dipping Cauldron

On another plate, two rows of warriors on horses are wearing clothing that is not of Celtic origin. The round discs on the horses’ straps are of Eastern European origin. However, on the same plate in the right bottom are men playing the carnyx (musical instruments), which are certainly of Celtic origin. A giant figure appears to be dipping one of the soldiers into what experts theorize is a cauldron of rebirth. This supports the belief that when one dies, he can be reborn into an afterlife. Some scholars also relate this with the Dagda, a great king of the magical tribe of mythological gods, Tuatha Dé Danann. The Dagda possessed a powerfully divine cauldron that never ran dry of food, it always satiated its user, healed the sick, and could even bring the dead back to life.

Scene possibly depicting the living and the dead and a resurrection by a god, 2012. Source: Wikipedia Commons, Claude Valette.

Cernunnos the Celtic God

It is the cauldron’s depiction of Cernunnos that firmly establishes the importance of the Celtic god. Often referred to as The Horned God, Cernunnos is depicted on one of the cauldron’s inner plates. He sits regally in a seated position and is surrounded by numerous animals such as a stag, canines, bovines, and even a dolphin with a human rider. The general impression is that Cernunnos serves a role of overseer.

Celtic god Cernunnos holding a torc in one hand and ram-horned snake in the other. Source: Wikimedia Commons, Malene Thyssen CC.

Archaeologists have long known that Cernunnos was an important part of the Celtic pantheon of gods. There is evidence to suggest, however, that Cernunnos, like Zeus, Jupiter, and Odin, was the predominant god figure of the Celts. His consort was the Green Lady goddess. Together, they reigned over everything from hunting to planting.

What comes round again and again in the multitude of designs are hunting scenes, gods, and female warriors that could represent goddesses. This type of iconography is not unique to the Celts.

Similar Art in Other Cultures

Archaeologists have noted many similarities between ancient Anatolian art and the images which adorn the cauldron found in Gundestrup. Chief among these are scenes which appear to tell a mythological story. Archaeologists found similar bas-reliefs and engravings on 36 rock tombs of ancient Lycia. Images of funerary feasts, banquets, hunting, and battle scenes are present in these tombs which date to the 4th century BCE.

A silver Thracian plate from another grave found in Stara Zagora, Bulgaria also shows incredible similarities to the Gundestrup cauldron. The metal-work, the griffins, the stripes on the clothing of a man believed to be Hercules, and the postures of the fantastic animals reflect those of the caldron.

Furthermore, experts generally agree that Western European Celts did not yet possess the craftsmanship to construct such a complex piece.

Magic of the Silver Cauldron

Is it possible that the cauldron served some magic ritual or religious celebration? The Celts, like other ancient peoples, connected their daily lives to their gods, nature, and magic. Scientists discovered a substance on the inside of the cauldron. After a chemical analysis, it turned out to be beeswax (Nielsen et al.: 5). In ancient days people often used wax as a waterproofing agent. This may indicate that some kind of liquid was put into the cauldron. What the liquid was is pure speculation.

Additionally, archaeological discoveries and the efforts of researchers like Sir James Frazer has established the practice of magical ritual by the Celts. The noted anthropologist explored this notion in his seminal work, The Golden Bough. In the book, Frazer writes, “Religion consists of two elements, a theoretical and a practical, namely, a belief in powers higher than man and an attempt to propitiate or please them.”

It could be that the Gundestrup cauldron is an example of both. The presence of the Cernunnos figure and goddess iconography support the importance of religion to the Celts. They believed in hierarchical figures who played a role in the life of mankind.

Theories About the Cauldron in the Bog

To Appease the Gods

Did someone make the silver cauldron as a propitiation or sacrifice to the gods and goddesses of the Celts? Possibly. During the Celtic Iron Age and roughly the first two centuries CE, Celtic sacrifices of goods, foods, animals, and even people into the bogs were common. Some ancient people of Denmark believed that gods lived in the bogs. This was because the natural peatlands provided many blessings that were critical for their survival. Peat provided fuel for fires that warmed their longhouses. The makers of linen textiles soaked their flax and hops in the bog water for the retting process. Additionally, iron smelters collected iron ore from the bogs. As a result of their many resources, the bogs evoked great reverence and appreciation.

Peat collectors have found around 400 bog sites in Denmark with items buried in holes that people had dug into the peat. Many clay pots contained food, and nearby, the bones of animals and sometimes humans often lie in the bog. There were even discoveries of wooden plows, ships, many wheels, and carriage parts. It may be that the people wanted to give back to the gods of the bogs as much as the bogs provided for them.

To Provision One’s Afterlife

Ancient people of Denmark believed that after death they had to take a long journey to get to their afterlife. They typically cremated their dead on a funeral pyre. After the funeral, they placed the ashes into an urn and buried them – often along with some possessions and food for the journey to the afterlife. Therefore, goods in the bogs may have been both sacrifices and items that would accompany the dead on their journey. Perhaps after the owner of the Gundestrup cauldron died, the magical silver piece went into the bog to go to his or her afterlife.

Ultimately, we may never know exactly what the purpose of the Gundestrup cauldron was. We may never discover why someone had carefully buried it in the peat bog. It certainly meant enough to someone to transport it or have someone transport it to Denmark from a very faraway place, probably the Balkans. Perhaps it also meant enough for that person to take it to the grave and into the afterlife.

The 3rd century Persian profit Mani, the founder of Manicheism, identified four great empires in the world. He spoke of Rome, China, Persia, and Aksum.

What was Aksum, ands who were its people? And why do we not remember this kingdom, which ranked among the greatest in the ancient world?

The Kingdom of Aksum

Of course, there is one famous civilization missing from the list, and in its absence lies the first clue at to where Aksum came from. The great civilization of Egypt had by this point been subsumed into the Roman empire, and its collapse and fragmentation gave room for its neighbors to grow powerful and expand.

Aksum was based to the south east of Egypt, in the highlands of Tigray in present-day Ethiopia. It also included parts of Eritrea, eastern Sudan and, across the Gulf of Aden, much of modern day Yemen as well.

Aksum was known for its formidable naval forces and military might. The kingdom was also a powerful trading nation and had well established links with the other three great powers of the era. Through these trade links it grew wealthy, building great monuments, developing a sophisticated written script, and introducing Christianity to sub-Saharan Africa.

The kingdom is likely to have been founded during the 1st century AD and flourished from the 3rd to 6th century AD. Since the stone age, humans had occupied the region, and the agrarian communities thrived there for about a millennium. However, the origins of Aksum still remain a mystery.

Rise of the Kingdom of Aksum

Before Aksum, there was the kingdom of D’mt. Possibly arriving from Yemen across the water, this small kingdom had established themselves on the western shore of the Red Sea. But very little is known of this enigmatic kingdom and their relationship with Aksum. Were they replaced by the Aksumites, or possibly did they become the Aksumites themselves?

What seems most likely is that, following a period of decline for the D-mt, they fragmented and were replaced by a number of smaller kingdoms in the region. These kingdoms slowly came together in the 1st century AD and eventually became known as the large kingdom of Aksum.

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The local geography of Aksum also contributed to its rise. Their capital city, also called Aksum, was located at the crossroads of prominent trade routes, and the fertile soil, climate, and rainfall patterns of the city made the region ideal for agriculture and herding of livestock.

The people of Aksum made the most of the opportunities available to them. Ivory and gold were the most valuable commodities for export, but they fully exploited all the resources of the region to enrich themselves. Rhinoceros horns, salt, emeralds, tortoise shells, myrrh, live animals, and slaves all came out of this flourishing power.

In return the Aksumites imported steel, iron, textiles, spices, jewelry, glassware, wine, olive oil, and weapons. Through the trade routes Aksum established across the Middle East, South Arabia, Egypt, China, and India, they grew rich and strong. The kingdom of Aksum was known to be the first African country to mint its own coins, of bronze, silver, and gold.

During the 3rd to the 6th centuries AD, the kingdom of Aksum rose to its peak of power. During those years, Aksum was a stratified, prosperous society with a clear hierarchy and division between the people and their rulers.

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Their capital city grew in terms of size, population, as well as the complexity of development. Through warfare, Aksum was also able to expand its territory. During the 4th century AD, King Ezana I of Aksum was even able to conquer the city-state of Meroe, which had been Egypt’s powerful southern neighbor for centuries.

The Genesis of African Christianity

Ezana I was not just a warmonger, however. The king of Aksum also officially adopted Christianity, replacing the indigenous polytheistic religion previously practiced by the Aksumites. Aksum also had some local quirks in its religion, such as the inclusion of Mahram, god of upheaval, war, and monarchy.

Other notable gods of the Aksumites were Hawbas, the moon deity, and Meder and Beher, the chthonic gods. In Astar, they also had their own representation of Venus. Various sacrifices were made by the people in order to honor those gods, and these seem to have been tolerated alongside Christianity, at least for a time.

It seems likely that Christianity was first introduced in the region through Egyptian traders and the missionaries that travelled with them. The kingdom of Aksum may have officially accepted Christianity owing to its important trade connections with the north African provinces of the Roman empire, also recently Christian.

The diplomatic connections of Aksum with Constantinople in the eastern Roman empire may have also accounted for the introduction of Christianity. However, there is also a more fanciful story as to the origin of Aksumite Christianity.

Traditional accounts tell of Frumentius, a shipwrecked traveler from Tyre in modern day Lebanon. This Frumentius was responsible for the introduction of Christianity in the kingdom of Aksum, serving as a teacher for the royal children, and later becoming the advisor and treasurer to the king, Ella Amida, the father of Ezana I.

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The form of Christianity in the kingdom of Aksum was similar to that in Coptic Egypt, and the Christian Patriarch of Alexandria was the figurehead in the Ethiopian Church. Aksumite churches were constructed, monasteries were founded, and the Bible was translated into different languages. The Church of Maryam Tsion, which famously today claims to house the original Ark of the Covenant, was the most important church in the kingdom of Aksum.

Writing and Art

The kingdom of Aksum had a writing system all of its own. One of the earliest examples of the writing system could be found on the schist rock slabs dating from the 2nd century AD. The script, known as Ethiopic or Ge’ez, resembles the languages of southern Arabia and apparently evolved from the language of the D’mt. The script is still being used in modern Ethiopia, and Christian Ethiopians have their own Ge’ez version of the Bible.

In terms of art, the kingdom of Aksum had potters who used to produce simple red and black terracotta ware without the use of a wheel. The wares had a matt finish appearance and were often coated with red stain.

Forms of the wares were bowls, cups, and spouted jugs. Geometric designs were decorated with the use of stamps, paintings, incisions, and three-dimensional pieces. One of the common decorative motifs was the Christian cross.

No large-scale statues were discovered from the kingdom of Aksum. However, stone bases, stone thrones, and small-scale figurines have been discovered.

Decline of Aksum

After weathering wars with Persia and internal strife, the kingdom of Aksum finally entered a terminal decline sometime during the late 6th century AD. The migration of western Bedja herders or overutilization of agricultural lands were the main reasons for the decline of the kingdom, although climate change may have also played a part.

Moreover, the policy of the kings of Aksum to give the tribal chiefs a great deal of autonomy also backfired, as this encouraged them to separate and form their own independent states. The loss of mercantile revenue from these breakaway kingdoms undermined the noble class of Aksum.

However, even in the 21st century, the kingdom of Aksum remains inhabited, and here we find the explanation for why they are not remembered today. Two of the other three great empires, Rome and Persia, fell with the passing centuries. China endures, still using her famous name of old.

Top Image: Reconstruction of an Aksumite palace. Source: A. Davey / CC BY 2.0.

By Bipin Dimri

Belmez Faces Appeared and Skeletons Were Found

The Belmez faces appeared in the Andalusian home. Wikimedia Commons.

Without any apparent cause, the stain began to develop over a period of time and eventually molded itself into a face. While this face was forming, the stain was said to have moved position. Terrified by this, Pereira tried to remove it several times by scrubbing vigorously. All of her efforts proved futile, so she solicited the assistance of her husband (Juan) and son (Miguel). Juan’s solution was a much more final one than mere cleaning. Along with their son, he took a pick-ax to the whole floor and cemented a new one in its stead. For about a week, things looked as though they had returned to normal. Then the face reappeared.

Skeletons Under the Kitchen

The Pereira’s still wanted this image removed on a permanent basis. But local gossip had somehow begun and quickly spread among the populace of the small Spanish town. When the Mayor heard about the Belmez Face, as it had been dubbed, he took steps to ensure that the image was not destroyed. They carefully removed it instead for serious study. The family asked the local council for any help that they could avail.

When surveyors came to the property, the decision to excavate the kitchen was taken. At the time it was considered the best and only method to try and understand why the face was present. It didn’t take workmen very long to find a potential clue to the appearance of the Belmez faces. Buried almost ten feet beneath the kitchen floor were some skeletons. Some of these had no skulls.

Prior to all of these skeletons being re-interred in a Catholic cemetery, the Belmez faces were tested and dated to be about 700 years old. The hole that was left was filled in and a new floor was cast in concrete. If the local council and the Pereira’s thought that their fifteen minutes of fame was over, then they were all mistaken. A couple of weeks of obscurity passed until another face, a different one than before, appeared.

Comings and Goings of Belmez Faces

Things were different this time around though. Instead of a single face making an appearance and refusing to budge no matter what, multiple faces began to appear on the floor. One visage would display prominently on the cement floor, only to be replaced by another. Sometimes this regeneration would happen over the course of mere hours. Some of the Belmez faces put on display were those of women and children. If the council had done anything for the Pereira’s, it actually made things worse for them.

Other Belmez faces. Source: unknown

Word of this occurrence didn’t start and stop in the town this time. The reports went national and even international, going as far as Germany and their renowned paranormal investigator Dr. Hans Bender. It was Bender that cited this activity as the most important case of the century. From the very beginning, all the Pereiras wanted to do was to rid themselves of the apparitions that had taken over their lives and their town. Now they were forced to endure a new terror… the curious. Visitors flocked to the house. All the students, researchers, priests, police officers, journalists, and skeptics all wanted to see for themselves this unexplained phenomenon.

Researchers Investigate and Seal Off the Kitchen

A full-scale investigation was launched. Samples of the concrete used were sent to the Instituto de Ceramica y Vidrio (ICV) for study. The ICV could find no evidence of any pigment, dyes or paint used, which ruled out a hoax. The remainder of the floor was photographed in sections and covered with a jacket that was sealed at the edges. Finally, the door and windows were all sealed with wax.

A German television crew filmed all of these precautionary measures with local dignitaries in attendance as well. Satisfied that nobody could tamper with the scene without detection, they left the kitchen alone for three months. When they officially unsealed the kitchen, the Faces of Belmez had moved and evolved.

Images imprinted on the floor. Source: Youtube

Skeptics and Theories

The unexplained mysteries happening at the Pereira home got the attention of investigators. Experiments designed to prove or disprove a hoax took place. Some tests were inconclusive, while others indicated that there were no paint substances on the concrete floor. Other suggestions for possible causes of all this were being considered. One of the prime candidates was a process known as Thoughtography. This is a psychokinetic ability that allows a person to project an image onto a surface either deliberately or accidentally. For this to be the case, then the prime suspect would be Maria Pereira.

Studies of the faces by academics did make notes that many of the expressions were identical to those of Maria at the time the faces would appear. Another clue used against her was the fact that the faces tended to appear while Maria was present. When she was away from the house, the activity would abate. A counter-argument to this proposal happened on the morning of 3 February 2004. Maria Pereira sadly passed away. But, the faces continued to appear on the bare stone floor of her kitchen.

And although there are many skeptics, others believe that the phenomenon continues to the present day.

Death of Elvis Presley

An Unbearable News Fans Refused to Accept

When the shocking news first broke, many fans refused to believe it. Some went as far as to insist that they had seen him beyond the given time of the announcement. The majority of these sightings were considered to be honest mistakes or even wishful thinking on the part of the witness(es).

At the time of Elvis’s recorded death, he was just 42 and half of his life firmly spent in the limelight. The official cause of death was given as heart failure, but there are some that believe that his abuse of prescription drugs ended his life.

A Misspelled Gravestone

On the day of the funeral, hundreds of thousands thronged the streets in an effort to catch a glimpse of the cortege. Among these people were fans, celebrities, and the media. The funeral was one of the first red flags for many fans and believers of the conspiracy. The huge gravestone prominent at Graceland actually has a typo upon it. Presley’s middle name was Aron but on the gravestone, it is embossed as Aaron. Opinion on this is divided even to this day. On the one hand, are those that swear Aaron is the correct interpretation of his middle name. On the other hand are those who believe that this is a deliberate message or signal.

Sightings of Elvis Presley Alive Since The Reported Death

Buoyed by this possibility, over the last 30 or 40 years, numerous sightings of Elvis Presley have been reported from all corners of the world. Among the more famous are the multitude of reported sightings in Kalamazoo, Michigan.

Mike Joseph visited Graceland and took a snapshot of one of the windows of the Pool House behind the Meditation Gardens in January 1978. Clearly seen inside was a middle-aged man resting on a chair. This man was dark-haired and looked suspiciously like the former resident. This is five months following the King’s reported death.

And here is a 1984 photograph of Jesse Jackson and former Heavyweight World Boxing Champion Muhammad Ali. Exactly who is that man in the background?

A Wax Sculpture in the Coffin

When Elvis lay in state prior to his funeral, some who saw him stated on record that many of his features were wrong. Noted irregularities included the eyebrows, chin, and fingers. Others who looked at the image of Elvis the coffin insist that the occupant of the casket wasn’t human at all. This is in reference to the famous National Enquirer image that, allegedly, cost the magazine $18000 paid to one of Elvis’s cousins.

They surmise that it was a wax dummy laying in the coffin.  Additionally, an air-conditioning unit was allegedly installed inside the coffin to keep the wax cool in the Memphis heat. The entire coffin weighed close to a ton… literally.

Colonel Tom Parker’s Statement

Who could also forget what Colonel Tom Parker said in a press conference shortly after the announcement of Elvis’s death?

[blockquote align=”none” author=”Colonel Tom Parker”]Elvis didn’t die. The body did. We’re keeping up the good spirits. We’re keeping Elvis alive. I talked to him this morning and he told me to carry on.[/blockquote]

These comments can be interpreted a number of ways. Did he mean this literally?

New Elvis Presley Album?

As late as 2001, a new album of Elvis material went on sale. Released on an independent label, the album is called Kingtinued and features a host of cover songs such as Tears in Heaven (Eric Clapton), Livin’ La Vida Loca (Ricky Martin), Crazy Little Thing Called Love (Queen), and the Princess Diana version of Candle in the Wind (Elton John).

As music fans know, many of these tracks came about long after 1977. The producer of the album denied claims that Elvis had somehow returned to the recording studio. He stated the voice is actually that of Elvis impersonator Doug Church.

Lack of Tour Preparation and Lay Offs

Elvis should have been readying for a new tour. But for some reason did not request items such as costumes that are considered to be standard procedure for an upcoming tour. According to some reports, Elvis fired several old friends from their roles within his entourage. Rumor has it that these individuals were working on a book based on their time within Elvis’s inner circle.

AKA: John Burrows

On August 17, 1977, at the Memphis Airport, a man calling himself John Burrows bought and used a one-way ticket to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Not only did he look and sound like Elvis Presley, but Burrows is a pseudonym of Elvis Presley for booking hotel rooms.

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Whether or not Elvis grew tired of his fame and decided to assassinate his public self, there can be little doubt that the aura of his legend has more than took over. His music and films still live on and are as popular now as they have always been. Elvis is an icon who helped propel a cultural revolution that ushered in the era of rock and roll. He came along when history needed him most and burned brightly for over two decades.

It’s pleasant to think Elvis Presley is alive and sunning on a tropical beach somewhere. Perhaps he still uses his trademark “Thank you! Thank you very much!.”

Sites pulled 2 January 2016

“I want to remain an eternal mystery to myself and others”, stated King Ludwig II of Bavaria. What happened when the king’s fairy-tale world and his role as monarch collided?

For many, the Bavarian castle of Schloss Hohenschwangau would seem a beautiful place to grow up. Perched high atop a mountain amidst stunning natural scenery, the castle seems every inch a fairy-tale palace.

But for Prince Ludwig II, the castle was the furthest thing from the idyllic setting it seemed to grow up in as a royal prince. He was educated to adhere to a rigid regimen from his birth in 1845. On the advice of their advisors, his mother, Marie of Prussia, and father, King Maximillian of Bavaria, kept a distance from Prince Ludwig and his younger brother, Prince Otto.

Thrust into the Real World

To keep the monarch focused on his duty to rule, a study and exercise regimen was created. Duty could make or break a king, and after failing to perform his duty during the German Revolution in 1864, his father abdicated. Ludwig was crowned King of Bavaria in the same year as he reached adulthood.

The people of Bavaria greeted the young, attractive king with open arms, especially the women who were attracted by his person as much as his position. But Ludwig had ascended to the throne at a perilous time: two years after becoming king, Bavaria and Austria had succumbed to Prussia in battle. Despite the fact that Bavaria had been granted some autonomy under the new Imperial Constitution, they were compelled to unite with twenty-one other monarchs to form the German Empire.

The monarchy had been constitutional up to this point, possessing of some but not entire influence; after this defeat, it had even less. Because of this early defeat, Prussia gained a lot of influence over Bavaria’s foreign policy and its young king.

The Fantastical World of Ludwig II

Ludwig didn’t do much differently as an adult from the boy his mother had described as a youngster who liked to put on plays, recite poems, and gift people money and property. He was frequently known to as the Swan King or, more famously, Der Märchenkönig (literally, “the Fairy Tale King”).

Uninterested in matters of the state he turned his attention to his fascination with French culture, which he idealized in his mind’s eye. Unhappy with how Bavaria was lacking in rich art, architecture, and music, he set out to build a multitude of fantastical castles, many taking their influence from the great French Palace of Versailles.

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Amongst his extravagant art projects, he constructed the castles of Neuschwanstein, Linderhof, and Herrenchiemsee. The king opted to hire theatrical set designers to construct the fortresses, making them all fantastical and far from reality. These castles were fictions, false battlements and vaulted ceilings held together with hidden wooden substructures. But they seemed every inch the perfect palaces Ludwig wanted them to be.

He had spent his days as a boy in Hohenschwangau Castle surrounded by the heroic German tales portrayed in the frescoes that adorned the castle’s walls. Ludwig was undoubtedly greatly affected by the artwork “Lohengrin” (“King of the Swan”) as he named one of his castles Schloss Neuschwanstein, meaning, “New Swan Stone Castle”. It was no coincidence this was the name of the castle owned by the Swan Knight Lohengrin in Richard Wagner’s famous opera.

Ludwig and Wagner

Richard Wagner’s music and operas fascinated Ludwig, who summoned the composer to a meeting with him in Munich in 1864. Many people credit the monarch for saving Wagner’s career by inviting him to stay in Munich and continue composing under his royal patronage.

Owing debts to numerous parties Wagner was at this point in his life only one step ahead of his creditors. His invitation to Munich was the narrowest of escapes from poverty or, worse, ending up in the hands of the many people he owed money to.

After his meeting with the king the composer wrote, “… Today I was brought to him. He is unfortunately so beautiful and wise, soulful and lordly, that I fear his life must fade away like a divine dream in this base world … You cannot imagine the magic of his regard: if he remains alive it will be a great miracle!”

The conservative residents of Munich, the state’s political capital, disliked Wagner and found his extreme anti-Semitism and philandering disturbing. Wagner’s life of opulence, luxury, and gossip was however short-lived, as Ludwig ordered him to leave six months after he arrived since his political views did not align with those of the Bavarian administration.

Forsaking his duty to his people and political alliance with his government the king continued to financially support Wagner. Completely caught up in the magical realms of Wagner’s operas, Ludwig confided in the composer that he planned to abdicate and join him. Wagner, alarmed at such a suggestion, shook the king out of his daydream and reminded him of his duty to his country and people.

Ever Deeper into a Fairy Tale

Ludwig’s self-perception was impacted by the fact that, as a constitutional king, he had limited influence over significant issues. A king in name but not in the original sense, he was left with a sense of estrangement from the position he occupied.

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The monarch gradually spent more time alone in his fantasy castles in an effort to create fairy-tale settings where he would feel like a real-life king rather than in Munich. He was enchanted by the belief that he must seem to be a king, creating the appearance of a magical kingdom and a holy one by the grace of God.

But his vision was expensive. His cabinet of ministers did not see eye to eye with Ludwig and had attempted to stop him from seeking loans from foreign ministries to construct yet more fantasy castles. Things came to a head and, sensing that he was about to dismiss the ministers in favor of a new cabinet, Ludwig’s parliament acted first.

The chief physician at Munich Asylum, Dr. Gudden, was tasked with quietly compiling a medical report outlining the king’s mental state. He deemed Ludwig insane, largely on the basis of rumors: examples of his bizarre actions were cited such as his pathological shyness, eating outside in the cold, avoiding state business, slobbish table manners, and violence toward servants.

The Fantasy is Destroyed

On June 10th 1886, a medical report declared that the king was, “Suffering from such a disorder, freedom of action can no longer be allowed, and Your Majesty is declared incapable of ruling, which incapacity will be not only for a year’s duration but for the length of Your Majesty’s life”.

Berg Castle, located south of Munich on Lake Starnberg, served as Ludwig’s prison. The night after his incarceration, Ludwig went for a stroll around the castle grounds with his physician, Dr. Gudden. This was the last time the 40 year old king or his doctor were ever seen alive.

The two men’s corpses were discovered in Lake Starnberg a few hours later. Although his death was ruled a suicide, the king was oddly discovered in only waist-deep water, and an autopsy showed that he had no water in his lungs. Even stranger, Dr. Gudden’s autopsy revealed that he had been strangled and had suffered a blow to the head.

The notes that the king’s personal fisherman, Jakob Lidl, left behind have sparked one explanation about the king’s demise. He claimed to have been waiting by on a boat, prepared to row the king to safety. However, just as Ludwig climbed onto the boat, a shot was fired from the opposing bank, instantly killing him. Is it conceivable that the king’s autopsy, which failed to report any wounds or scars on his body, was falsified?

It seems obvious that the king’s death, whether it was caused by murder or suicide, was a direct outcome of his own unceasing desire to establish a perfect mythical kingdom. The Swan King could never exist as anything other than a fantasy character.

Top Image: Ludwig’s great castle Neuschwanstein, every inch the fairy-tale palace. Source: Savvapanf Photo © / Adobe Stock; Unknown Author / Public Domain.

By Roisin Everard