One of the most unusual pyramids in the history of ancient Egypt, the pyramid of Sneferu was one of the first pyramids that was built, located at the Egyptian royal necropolis at Dahshur. It is unique among pyramid development in Egypt.

Sneferu, an Egyptian Old Kingdom Pharaoh, constructed the Bent Pyramid in around 2600 BC. Sneferu was the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, and his stepson Khufu oversaw the construction of the great pyramid at Giza in later years.

The pyramid was built in the desert on Nile’s west bank, 40 km (25 miles) south of Cairo. Pyramids had until this point been built on fertile land, but this represented something new. And instead of being constructed in a perfect pyramid shape, the walls bend inwards for the top section.

The Bent Pyramid is among only five of the old kingdom pyramids that remain in their original form, even after 4,500 years of construction. The pyramid even retains its limestone casing which would make it shine in the desert sun.

Why is the Pyramid Bent?

The pyramid is known as Bent Pyramid owing to the steep change in its slope. The walls of the lower part of the pyramid rise at an angle of 54 degrees. Then, at about 49 m (161 feet) above the base, there is an abrupt flattening of the slope to 43 degrees. This gives the pyramid its distinctive bent shape.

There are several theories relating to the change in the slope’s angle. One of the prominent theories is that Snefuru intentionally reduced the slope angle after he received news of the collapse of a pyramid at Meidum.

Another popular theory suggests that the pyramid took a lot of time to be built. To speed up construction and complete the pyramid faster, Sneferu may have reduced the pyramid’s angle.

Some scholars even believe that the odd shape of the Bent Pyramid was intentionally planned for some religious reasons. However, most Egyptologists have dismissed this theory relating to the shape of the pyramid.

Layout of the Bent Pyramid

A yellowish-grey enclosure wall, made of limestone, surrounds the pyramid complex. The main pyramid, a small temple, a satellite pyramid, and a small courtyard line up within the wall.

The Bent Pyramid itself consists of two entrances. The first entrance of the pyramid lies towards the north and is 12 m (39 feet) above ground level. Wooden stairways have been constructed to provide the tourists with optimum convenience.

The second entrance of the pyramid is towards the west and leads, like the first, to a chamber with a corbelled, high roof. While the chamber of the northern entrance is below the ground level, the chamber of the western entrance is constructed on the body of the Bent Pyramid.

These high vaulted ceilings, although relatively common in later pyramid construction, may have posed problems of structural stability. It may have been this uncertainty about the pyramid which led to the change in angle for the top portion.

The Surroundings

A causeway, paved with limestone blocks, runs from the northeast of the Bent Pyramid towards the small temple. On each side of the causeway runs a low limestone wall, a little curved at the top.

Many believe that the Bent Pyramid may also have a second causeway that links the complex to the landing stage or a dock. However, no trace of a second causeway has been discovered to date.

Towards the east of the Bent Pyramid, some fragmentary remains of the pyramid temple have been found. Similar to the Meidum pyramid’s temple, two stelae are present behind the pyramid temple.

Moreover, no trace of any kind of inscription is found. Even though there are only fragmentary remains of the temple, it is assumed that it had a lot of similarities with the Meidum pyramid’s temple, which would support the theory that lessons learned from the construction at that complex would be applied here.

According to some Egyptologists, a satellite pyramid constructed nearby was designed to house the “ka” of the Pharoah, his “double” of the soul. Located about 55 meters (180 feet) towards the south of the Bent Pyramid, this smaller pyramid is only 26 meters (85 feet) high.

The faces of the pyramid are inclined at an angle of 44 degrees, a similar angle to the shallower top portion of the Bent Pyramid. The entire structure is built using limestone blocks arranged in horizontal rows.

The smaller pyramid contains a burial chamber, accessed through a descending corridor. A horizontal passage then connects this corridor with another ascending corridor which then leads up to a chamber. The design of these corridors is quite similar to the corridors present in the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Significance of the Bent Pyramid

The Bent Pyramid was one of its kind, a unique structure constructed in the history of ancient Egypt. It marks the glorious period in which the construction of pyramids evolved and may have been the first pyramid with smooth sides.

It is not only the most unusual pyramid in Egypt but also one of the best-preserved pyramids. Unusually large gaps between the limestone blocks covering the pyramid may have helped to preserve this casing, as the gaps would have allowed room for thermal expansion of the blocks without them touching.

Until the 19th century, there was no archaeological investigation of the Bent Pyramid. It only started in the 19th century when Egyptologists such as Lepsius, Perring, and Petrie began exploring the structure in Egypt.

These were followed by more modern investigations, including that of Ahmad Fakhry during the early 1950s. However even after so many investigations of the Bent Pyramid, several Egyptologists believe that there are secrets still to be revealed.

Whether all the chambers of the pyramid have been accurately located or not is still a question. The archaeological studies were often hindered as strong winds led to the creation of drafts through the passageways.

Owing to this, there are assumptions that some of the passageways or rooms of the Bent Pyramid may have remained undiscovered. Does this unique and ancient pyramid still have some secrets? Certainly, the remains of the Pharaoh Sneferu have never been found.

Top Image: Sneferu’s bent pyramid. Source: WitR / Adobe Stock.

By Bipin Dimri

Before science revealed the mysteries of the seas, superstitions and lore reigned the lives of mariners. One example is ghost ships, which have been plaguing seamen since the dawn of sailing. The most famous of these is undoubtedly the glowing spectral schooner called the Flying Dutchman. Throughout history, strange sightings resulted in eerie legends that explain why sailors feared the phantom ship as an omen of impending death.

Variations of the Legend

Pirates of the Caribbean

There have been many versions of the Flying Dutchman story throughout history. Most recently, Pirates of the Caribbean popularized the tale around the world. In the movie, the Greek goddess-nymph Calypso gave Davy Jones (her lover) the ship called the Dutchman to transport to the afterlife the souls of dead men lost at sea. When Calypso didn’t meet Jones after ten years, he became overwrought with grief and stopped ferrying the dead. Instead, he roamed the earth doing whatever he wished. For this, Davy Jones and his crew suffered a terrible curse that turned them into hideous mixtures of human/sea creature. As time passed, they became less and less human.

Early print versions of the legend from the late 18th century say that the Flying Dutchman sank in a terrible storm off the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa). It had tried but failed to enter the port, and all men on board perished with the ship. Subsequently, the ghost ship would appear to other vessels as a messenger of doom. Then it would vanish as suddenly as it appeared.

George Barrington, 1795

George Barrington from London served time in Botany Bay, Australia, in the late 1700s for pickpocketing. He later became a pioneer and author and wrote about the legend he heard regarding the Flying Dutchman. In his story, two Dutch ships sailed together toward the Cape of Good Hope when a storm overcame them. One made it to shore, while the other one sank along with all of its crew. When the surviving ship left the Cape to head back to Europe, it encountered another storm. In the dark clouds, crew members believed they saw their companion vessel that sank. When they arrived at the port, they told everyone about their ghostly sighting and called it the Flying Dutchman.

[blockquote align=”none” author=”George Barrington”]Some of the people saw, or imagined they saw, a vessel standing for them under a press of sail, as though she would run them down: one in particular had affirmed it was the former ship that had foundered in the former gale, and it must certainly be her, or the apparition of her; but on its clearing up, the object, a dark thick cloud, disappeared.[/blockquote]

John Leyden, 1803, & Others

Later, other ideas about the phantom ship followed. For example, in author John Leyden’s write-up, the sailors aboard the vessel had committed some crime. God punished them with a dreadful disease, and because no port allowed their entry, they had to sail the seas until judgment day. Sir Walter Scott connected the vessel to piracy and great treasures and said that a crewmate murdered another on board. Thomas Moore introduced the concept that the ship speeds along with full sails, even though there is no wind. Many variants of the tale say the captain swore to sail the seas forever, and the devil obliged him.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

The “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” was a long poem written by the Englishman Samuel Taylor Coleridge in 1797-1798. It possesses a few elements of the Dutchman and is a great story. In it, a mariner, who is now living onshore, stops another man on his way to a wedding ceremony. He tells the man a tale about a strange experience he had on the sea long ago. During this sea voyage, the mariner shot an albatross. This resulted in a curse that sent the ship and crew into the Doldrums near the equator. For days and days, they were stuck and unable to go anywhere.

Then the mariner’s vessel encountered an old dilapidated ship, and aboard, two scary characters, “Death” and “Life-in-Death” were playing dice for the souls of the men on the mariner’s ship. “Death” won the souls of the crew, but “Life-in-Death” got the better prize, the mariner, who needed to suffer for his crime against nature. The crew all dropped dead, and eventually, the mariner wandered the earth in guilty penance having to tell his story over and over again to everyone he met.

Blackwood Edinburgh Magazine, 1821

Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine published a full story, Vanderdecken’s Message Home, about the Flying Dutchman in 1821. This version claimed that the Dutchman had left Amersterdam 70 years prior on its way to the East Indies for trade. Its commander, Captain Vanderdecken, brought a curse upon himself (and the crew) during an angry outburst in a storm as he tried to round the Cape of Good Hope. The devil heard his exclamation that he would “beat about here till the day of judgment” and damned him to remain in those seas. In the following excerpt, the Dutchman comes near the witnesses’ ship and makes contact:

“The next flash of lightning shone far and wide over the raging sea, and showed us not only the Flying Dutchman at a distance, but also a boat coming from her with four men. The boat was within two cables’ length of our ship’s side. . . . One of the men came upon deck, and appeared like a fatigued and weather-beaten seaman, holding some letters in his hand. Our sailors all drew back.

The chaplain, however, looking steadfastly upon him, went forward a few steps, and asked, ‘What is the purpose of this visit?’ The stranger replied, ‘We have long been kept here by foul weather, and Vanderdecken wishes to send these letters to his friends in Europe.’ Our captain now came forward, and said as firmly as he could, ‘I wish Vanderdecken would put his letters on board of any other vessel rather than mine.’ The stranger replied, ‘We have tried many a ship, but most of them refuse our letters.’”

The Opera That Popularized the Flying Dutchman

Richard Wagner’s opera, Der fliegende Hollandermade, made the story of the Flying Dutchman famous. In his rendition, the Flying Dutchman is not the ship, but the captain. The scene takes place off of Norway rather than the Cape of Good Hope. He also adopted some of Heindrich Heine’s version. This added the idea that every seven years, the captain could go to shore to search for a woman who could set him free through her endless love.

Origin of the Dutchman’s Story

The original story of the Dutchman may stem from the 17th century. Though many sources attribute the term, Flying Dutchman, to a spectral ship, other historians believe the inspiration was one of the Dutch East India Company’s real captains. Bernard Fokke is one possibility. He became legendary for his record-fast trips between Holland and Java, via the Cape of Good Hope. People didn’t think that anyone could accomplish such a feat and said that he must have made a deal with the devil.

The other possibility is someone by the name of Hendrick Van der Decken, who supposedly captained a Dutch East India Company ship that disappeared in 1641 somewhere between Holland and Asia. Some authors also used the name Captain Phillip Vanderdecken in some iterations of the story.

Sightings of the Flying Dutchman Ship

King George & Prince Albert Victor

One of the most significant sightings of the ghost ship came from King George V of the United Kingdom. In 1880, he and his brother Prince Albert Victor were on a three-year voyage. On July 11, 1881, the Prince recorded a strange vision that appeared to them in the Bass Strait while aboard the HMS Inconstant.

He wrote that an encounter occurred at 4 am when the Flying Dutchman crossed their port bow. They saw “a strange red light as of a phantom ship all aglow, in the midst of which light the masts, spars, and sails of a brig 200 yards distant,” according to George’s description.

The officer on watch and several other sailors initially spotted the ship, but the vessel quickly disappeared. It didn’t end there, though.

George wrote that at 10:45 am, the sailor who had spotted the apparition suffered a gruesome fate. He fell from the masts onto the ship’s forecastle and died instantly. Naturally, everyone thought the phantom ship had been a supernatural warning of doom.

Bystanders at Glencairn Beach, South Africa

Although many sightings of the famous ghost ship have come from sailors out at sea, people on the shores also glimpsed the apparition. In 1939 and 1941, crowds of people at Glencairn Beach, South Africa, saw the Flying Dutchman under full sail on a collision course with the land.

According to a contemporary news report from the 1939 incident, the ship sailed on with “uncanny volition,” heading towards the shores of Strandfontein. Bystanders had a long, unobstructed view of the vessel before it disappeared in the blink of an eye.

The 1941 report mirrors the first, with the phantom vessel heading towards rocks before abruptly vanishing.

Gulf of Suez, Red Sea

The most recent sighting of the phantom ship occurred during the Second World War. The ship’s log of a U-Boat reported that crew members spotted the Flying Dutchman.

What became of the U-Boat and whether it ended up at the bottom of the sea is uncertain. Although the legend places most sightings off the Cape of Good Hope, this took place in the eastern half of the Gulf of Suez in the Red Sea.

What Causes Sightings of the Dutchman?

Phantom ships have contributed much to nautical lore for centuries. Naturally, scientists have attempted to investigate the phenomenon to determine what may be the cause. The most common and well-researched explanation is one type of mirage known as a Fata Morgana.

When atmospheric conditions are just right, the refraction of light causes a reflection of a ship or other object beyond the horizon. From afar, the mirage can seem like it’s floating above the water or in the sky, sometimes upside down and often with an eerie glow.

Because atmospheric conditions are volatile, the mirage can quickly disappear. This would explain why witnesses have said the Flying Dutchman vanished right before their eyes. The following video explains this phenomenon well.

So, what about the close-up sighting by King George? Why did it fool U-boat submariners? How does it account for the ill-fortune suffered by some of those who have seen the ship?

Three Hundred Years of the Evolving Dutchman

Although most people believe that there is probably no such thing as a ghost ship, this was not the case three hundred years ago. The men who spotted the Flying Dutchman believed that it was otherwordly and were truly frightened. For them, it meant certain peril in already frightening and mysterious waters. What they saw at sea became their tales on land, and their stories spread across the world. Throughout history, the fantastic legends profoundly touched the human imagination and inspired hundreds of pieces of art, literature, and entertainment. Today, the story of the ghostly vessel continues to evolve. For most of us, it is a story to enjoy, but for the still superstitious mariner, it is a phenomenon to steer clear of.

The Great Sphinx of Giza is one of the most recognizable man-made objects in the world. Despite this, it is also one of the most mysterious man-made objects in the world. Even if you accept the general consensus of who built the Sphinx, how was the Sphinx built, you are still left with many questions that have not been, or cannot be, explained. However, not everyone accepts the general consensus and therefore, the Sphinx is even more of an enigma to them. One of the mysteries of the Sphinx that has possibly been answered, but often disputed, is how old is the Sphinx.

The head of the Sphinx emerging from the sand in 1867.

When Was the Great Sphinx Built

If you deny the general consensus of the age of the Sphinx, you are left with the question of who built it. However, for the purposes of this article, we will ignore that question, as it is still disputed within the realm of general consensus. In other words, even if you do accept that the Sphinx was built when most Egyptologists say it was, there is still the question of in which pharaoh’s reign it was built. That question may be answered as well, but it doesn’t answer who built it. We have the tomb of the pyramid builders. We have no such evidence of who built the Sphinx.

According to translations of the “Dream Stela” at the foot of the Sphinx, King Thutmose IV came across the head of the Sphinx when he was still a prince. The rest of the statue was buried in the sand. He took shelter from the sun in the shadow of the great head. While there, he drifted off to sleep and dreamed that the Sphinx wanted him to dig out the rest of the statue in exchange for making him king. When he awoke, the prince remembered the dream and the deal was completed on both sides. If we are to believe that Thutmose IV unearthed the Sphinx, then we know the Sphinx dates back much farther than his reign, which began around 1400 BC.

A photo of the Great Sphinx taken in 1895.

Dr. Zahi Hawass and the Old Kingdom

According to Egypt’s premier archaeologist, Dr. Zahi Hawass Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, the Great Sphinx of Giza was built during the Old Kingdom in Egypt (2649-2150 BC). There is quite a bit of evidence to support this, but the most obvious is the style of the statue. The features of the face, the headdress, and the shape of the head are reminiscent of the 4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BC). Theories that go against Hawass’s findings put carving of the Sphinx thousands of years before the 4th Dynasty. That begs the question, why would artistic style have remained the same in Egypt for so many thousands of years? Of course, it begs many other questions as well. Dr. Hawass has said that none of these theories (regarding an earlier date) “has any basis in fact.”

Dr. Robert Schoch and Sphinx Water Erosion

One of the prevailing arguments for the Great Sphinx being older than the Old Kingdom is that some of the erosion on the Sphinx appears to have been caused by water. Dr. Robert Schoch of Boston University studied the Sphinx water erosion and says that it appears to have been made by heavy rainfall. He claims that the sort of rainfall that has occurred in the Giza Plateau since 5000 BC would not have been enough to cause this sort of damage. Much heavier rains occurred before 5000 BC, making a date around or before then more feasible to him and others. He has also found that similar erosion does not exist in other monuments in the area dating from the Old Kingdom.

Dr. Schoch has hinted that wet sand could have caused the erosion on the pyramid. We do know that the Sphinx has been buried for the better part of its existence. In fact, it was only unearthed again in 1936. This being the third time that we are aware of, including Thutmose’s tale. However, we have no way of knowing if it was buried in wet sand. Even if we did, we still have the fact that others have credited blowing sand with the Sphinx’s erosion.

Problems in Determining How Old is the Sphinx

If you accept that the Great Sphinx of Giza was carved during the Old Kingdom, you still have to wonder exactly when. Some experts believe that it was built during the reign of Khufu (2589-2566 BC), the man for whom the Great Pyramid was built. Others believe that it was built during Khafre’s reign (around 2500 BC). Khafre is the man for whom the second largest of the Great Pyramids was built. The difference is only that of a few hundred years.

It is impossible to use most modern scientific methods to learn how old is the Sphinx. Because it is carved out of stone, carbon dating is out of the question. The only methods available to us are those of observation and deduction. Who could have possibly carved the Great Sphinx before 5000 BC? Why would it appear to be an Old Kingdom structure thousands of years after it was built? Observation and deduction tell us that no one could have carved the Great Sphinx that long ago. Additionally, the idea that the style of art would have remained the same in Giza for all that time is absurd. However, concrete evidence cannot be applied to the Sphinx, as there is none. There is no record of it being carved and there is no way of dating it conclusively.

First released in 2019 and with two seasons currently on Netflix, The Witcher has been a major success. Starring Henry Cavill and based on the books and short stories of Andrzej Sapkowski, the fantasy series is steeped in eastern European traditions and folklore.

Like many other creatures seen in the universe of the Witcher this was not an invention but based on a real tradition in Slavic mythology. The Leshy, a god of the forests and of hunting, was a wild and malevolent entity who roamed the deepest and most inaccessible backwoods of eastern Europe.

The Leshy  was most often depicted as a huge and gaunt male, colored gray and green and bearded. But he was known as a shapeshifter and could take any form as he sought to trick the unwary who walk through his forests, leading them to their doom.

Sometimes, he is also portrayed to have horns and is surrounded by packs of bears and wolves, the wild and dangerous animals of the forest. In a number of accounts, he is also said to have a wife named Leschachikha, and children.

According to the fairy tale, his wife is a cursed woman who either left or was forced from her village and lives in the deep forest with Leshy. Their children, mischievous like their father, are lost in the forest and are rarely seen.

Old Man of the Forest

When Leshy takes the shape of an old man, he appears to be extremely wizened. Tangled green hair covers his body from head to toe, and his skin is rough, like tree bark. As he walks, he causes the winds to blow through the trees.

His blood is said to be blue, adding a tinge of that color to his skin and allowing him to disappear easily into the woodland background, being very rarely seen. Most of the time it is his voice that is heard by people in the forest. He can be heard singing, laughing, or even whistling.

On spotting Leshy, he can be identified easily. While he appears like a man, his right ear, eyelashes, and eyebrows are missing. His head is also pointed, and he doesn’t wear a belt or a hat.

When in his native forest, he is a giant as tall as the trees. However, the moment Leshy steps out of the forest, his size shrinks and becomes as small as a single blade of grass. A number of stories also describe Leshy as having cloven hooves and horns. He wore shoes on the wrong feet to confuse trackers, and does not cast a shadow.

Slavic Mythology

Leshy is capable of changing his shape and taking the form of different animals such as bears and wolves. According to the beliefs of the Slavic people, he is a protector of the forests as well as the animals that live in the marshes and forests.

People who were kind to the forest spirit used to receive gifts from him. In the folk tales, the poor peasants received cattle. In some stories, princes would seek out the guidance of the Leshy to help them find their ideal princess.

Shepherds and farmers even made a pact with the Leshy in order to protect their sheep and crops. It was said that people who became friends with a Leshy could learn the secrets of magic.

However, Leshy is also considered untrustworthy and sometimes even an evil entity, who would trick women into the forest. Leshy also had a reputation for abducting children who were not baptized, and would even abduct children entering the forest to catch fish or pick berries.

In the forest, he would also lead travelers astray to such an extent that they felt hopelessly lost. The intent of Leshy isn’t always evil in such cases: he is more a mischievous being who enjoys misguiding humans from their path. He is even known to visit a wayside tavern, drink vodka, and lead a pack of wolves back to the forest.

For people who were lost in the wood or have annoyed Leshy, it was recommended that they made Leshy laugh. In order to do so, people could try tricks like taking off their clothes, wearing shoes on the wrong feet, to try and confuse the spirit.

Another way of driving away the forest monster was to recite prayers alternatively with curses. Applying salt to fire was considered yet another means of getting rid of Leshy.

The Living Forest

At times, more than one Leshy is believed to live in the forest. According to some folk tales, these Leshen lived in an enormous palace, along with beasts and serpents of the forest. During the winters, they would hibernate here. However, once spring arrived, the entire tribe of Leshen went running through the woods, yelling and screaming.

In the summer times, the Leshy was most active and most commonly played tricks on humans. However, those tricks were rarely known to cause any harm to humans at this time.

During the autumn, they tended to be more quarrelsome. They looked for opportunities to frighten and fight with other creatures in the forest as well as with the humans. During the final cold days of the year, when leaves start falling from the trees, the Leshy disappeared and went to hibernate once again.

The Leshy clearly represents a personification of the mystery and the dangers of the Slavic forests to the unwary. Silent in winter and safer, if disorienting, in the summer, the old wizened tree-man is a summation of what can befall you if you step into the forest unprepared.

This monster finds its analogue in the Scandinavian trolls, or the Wendigo of Native American myth. Maybe there once was an old man of the forest, some human or creature who inhabited the dense and inaccessible wilderness of eastern Europe.

Maybe, somewhere in the leafy darkness, he is out there still, ready to snatch unwary children who venture too deep into the woods. But at least, this time, we have Henry Cavill to save us.

Top Image: Common depiction of the Leshy. Source: Н. Н. Брут / Public Domain.

by Bipin Dimri

Throughout her extensive reign, Queen Victoria valiantly overcame seven assassination attempts, demonstrating remarkable fortitude. Faced with adversaries such as Edward Oxford, a bold 18-year-old who disrupted the tranquility of Buckingham Palace with gunfire, and John Francis, who twice attempted to harm her in a single weekend, Queen Victoria confronted each incident with unwavering resolve. The assailants, ranging from a disgruntled ex-actor to a newsstand worker with a hunchback, each harbored unique yet misguided reasons for their actions. Despite these continuous threats, Victoria’s composed response, including her prompt appearance at the opera after being struck by Robert Pate’s iron-tipped cane, not only showcased her bravery but also cemented the public’s deep respect for her. The varied motives of these attacks, from political zeal to personal distress, never compromised her safety. Instead, these repeated attempts only seemed to elevate her esteem among her subjects, affirming a strong bond between the monarch and the people. In navigating these relentless dangers, Queen Victoria stood as a beacon of resilience and a beloved figure of public reverence.

Top image: Left; Franz Xavier Winterhalter – The Young Queen Victoria in 1837. Right; Older Queen Victoria photograph. Source: Left;  Gandalf’s Gallery/ CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Right; Wellcome Images/ CC BY 4.0

By Robbie Mitchell