Machine gun nest, Poelcappelle, Belgium, World War I, 1914-1918. Poelcappelle was the site of a battle during the larger Battle of Passchendaele (Third Battle of Ypres) in 1917. Stereoscopic card detail. (Colorised black and white print). Artist Realistic Travels Publishers. (Photo by The Print Collector/Getty Images)
When discussing battles throughout the history of warfare, the participants and the equipment and tactics they used are usually the focus. However, the actual physical conditions of the battlefield itself can be equally decisive for the outcome of a battle, sometimes even more so than the actions of the people involved. Rain, snow, mountains, an unexpected river or hillside can totally change how a battle is fought.
Commanders are usually aware of this, but the time and place a battle takes place are not always ideal for each respective participant. Here are five of the worst battlefields in history.
Conditions throughout the Korean War were infamously difficult. Many battles were fought at high altitudes and in the freezing cold, but the battle of Chosin Reservoir in late 1950 was particularly brutal. US Marines were attacked by an enormous force of Chinese troops that outnumbered them by at times ten-1o-one. The attack was a surprise and lead to the Marines’ encirclement.
As if this wasn’t bad enough, both sides were exposed to the extremely harsh Siberian winter, with temperatures reaching as low as -36 degrees Fahrenheit. The ground was frozen solid so foxholes were virtually impossible to dig, weapons jammed and men experienced frostbite. The Marines eventually broke out of the encirclement, but “frozen Chosin” remains an example of harsh battlefield conditions.
The Rzhev Meat Grinder
Panzer III carrying infantry in March, 1942 (Photo Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-269-0240-11A / Böhmer / CC-BY-SA 3.0)
The Soviet Union’s contributions to Germany’s defeat are often overlooked in the west, but they endured years of terribly harsh conditions on the Eastern Front, claiming more of the enemy and losing more people than anyone else in the war. The Eastern Front is arguably the greatest showdown between two opponents in military history.
The “Rzhev Meat Grinder” was an enormous series of battles that saw 3.6 million Soviet troops battle against over 1.5 million Germans. The vicious combat claimed vast amounts of life and the battlefields were quite literally littered with corpses. There were so many bodies that they were sometimes laying on top of each other up to three layers deep. Heavy rains caused many of the corpses to float around.
Some people believe that more than one million Soviets died in the Rzhev Meat Grinder.
Passchendaele
Canadian 16th Machine Gun Company (Photo by: Universal History Archive/UIG via Getty images)
Passchendaele was the location of fierce combat during the First World War. The battle took place on reclaimed marshland, which was soon churned up by the continuous barrage of artillery fire. Shell craters quickly filled up with water as the location degraded into a water-logged swamp, making conditions in the soaking wet Passchendaele trenches unimaginably horrible.
Eventually, there was not a single piece of solid ground. The mud was sticky and so deep that men and even horses drowned. When one fell in, it was often impossible to get them out without risking the lives of others. Sometimes troops would simply shoot men stuck in the mud to save them from an even worse death. The conditions at Passchendaele were arguably the worst of the entire war and were a living hell for the men who fought there.
One of the most critical battles leading up to the Vietnam War, some describe the battle of Dien Bien Phu as a slaughter. A French position at the bottom of the valley was meant to be resupplied by the air, under the assumption the Viet Minh had no appreciable anti-aircraft capabilities. Thick jungle canopy, wild vegetation, and downpours of rain in the area took their toll on the French troops.
The Viet Minh surrounded the position and hammered it with heavy artillery fire. They brought anti-aircraft weapons too, which severely limited French support by air and hampered their ability to fight back. The French fortress filled with water and the corpses of their troops. Eventually, the position was overrun completely and has become an example of a crippling military and political failure.
Bougainville
(Original Caption) Bougainville- Fresh Army troops come ashore to reinforce the Marines who are wrestling this island from the Japs. Long files of infantry move up rough mud and streams to the front. The conquest of Bougainville will give us a vital base. Undated photo circa 1940s. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The Bougainville campaign took place during WWII while the Allies attempted to gain control of the Solomon Islands from the Japanese. Allied forces had to battle an extremely determined enemy lasted in an action that lasted from 1943 until the end of the war.
When they reached Bougainville they were greeted with brutal humidity, knee-deep mud, and thick jungle. The canopy was so dense that aircover was rendered useless, so the men had to fight through the conditions on foot. Things got even worse when the rainy seasons came, and the region remained a horrible place to operate in until the war ended.
We have all seen photos of the devastating damage left in the wake of the First World War. Cities that were reduced to rubble, large sections of land across Europe completely destroyed, and the catastrophic effects of trench warfare. Although we have seen the images from the ground, we rarely see the full extent of the destruction. Here, we look at aerial film footage taken in 1919 that gives us an extraordinary view of the massive scale of the devastation across the western front.
Jacques Trolley de Prévaux
Jacques Trolley de Prévaux. (Boulangerbenoit/ Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain via CC-BY-SA-4.0)
The aerial film footage was taken by French balloon pilot Jacques Trolley de Prévaux. He was born on April 2, 1888, in Paris, France. After he finished school, he decided to become a sailor. In 1906, he entered the French naval academy, where he came in third place in the competitive entrance examination.
In 1911, Trolley de Prévaux was received into the French Navy, and in 1917 he was promoted to lieutenant. That same year, Trolley de Prévaux was granted a transfer to the French Naval Aviation, and was assigned to command the Marquise-Rinxent Directed Center. Prior to this, he worked on the torpedo boat Chasseur and gunboat Diligente.
Jacques Trolley de Prévaux clocked many flight hours as airships emerged as a powerful weapon in the First World War. For his actions in the War, he was awarded the Legion of Honour and War Cross.
During the Second World War, Trolley de Prévaux and his wife, Lotka Leitner, joined the French Resistance. Sadly, on August 4, 1944, the Gestapo shot him and his wife in Lyon as the Allies were liberating Paris.
World War I damages from above
In 1919, Jacques Trolley de Prévaux flew over the battlegrounds of the First World War to document the damages. He traveled from the Belgian coastline to the French city of Verdun. He captured the ruins of Ypres, the flooded craters of Passchendaele, and the miles and miles of trenches visible from the air.
It was important for France to document their war damages, as a considerable portion of the fighting on the Western Front took place in their country. Of the eight million Frenchman mobilized during the First World War, 1.3 million had been killed and 1 million badly injured.
Similarly, large parts of northeastern France, the nation’s premier industrial and agricultural area, were completely destroyed. Some regions and cities in France were so severely damaged that it was not even worth attempting to rebuild.
Jacques Trolley de Prévaux’s film captured this devastation in France. The full film is about 78 minutes long and was first shown in France during the 1920s. The movie was then given to the Musée Albert-Kahn in Boulogne-Billancourt, where it would remain for nearly 90 years, until 2008 when it was transferred into digital form.
In 2010, the BBC included Trolley de Prévaux’s film footage in their documentary, The First World War From Above. The short documentary is worth a watch, especially as it features Jacques Trolley de Prévaux daughter, Aude Yung-de Prévaux, who was only a baby when the Gestapo killed her father.
Being a member of the US Army is one of the most valiant careers a person can choose. However, the job hasn’t always paid as such. For over a century, the majority of soldiers earned far less than the average civilian. Even today, troops’ salaries in no way match the job they’re doing and the sacrifice they’re making.
Here’s a look at how well (or not) America’s defenders were paid, from the Revolutionary War to present day.
Revolutionary War
The Revolutionary War saw the US fighting for independence from the British. Over the course of the conflict, the Continental Army consisted of around 150,000 men, with 17,000 serving at any one time.
Battle of Bunker Hill, as illustrated by John Trumbull. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Soldiers’ pay varied depending on their rank. Upon enlisting, each was promised a one-time bounty of either land or money, along with their monthly salary. Privates received $6.00, while generals earned $8.00. Captains received $20.00 and colonels were paid $50.00 each month. These salaries struggled to keep up with inflation, and the Continental Congress was slow to revisit the Army’s pay structure.
Discussions led to a pay increase for some, with colonels being bumped to $75.00 a month and captains, $40.00. Privates didn’t receive a raise, which hurt their pocketbooks, as they had to pay for their own uniforms, weapons and gear.
War of 1812
Those wishing to serve in the Army during the War of 1812 initially needed to sign a five-year contract, with recruits later given the option to join for the duration of the conflict. Upon enlisting, soldiers were given a one-time bounty of $31.00 and 160 acres of land, a total later increased by Congress to $124.00 and 320 acres. This was notable, as the financial compensation itself was more than what the average unskilled laborer earned a year.
Battle of New Orleans. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
At the start, privates were paid a monthly salary of $5.00, while noncommissioned officers earned between $7.00 and $9.00. The pay for officers varied widely, between $20.00 to $200.00. When it became clear more recruits were needed, Congress raised the pay of privates and NCOs by $4.00.
During the first year of the war, Congress was slow to pay troops their salaries, culminating in an absolute refusal to march and mutinies in October 1812. As the conflict progressed, the problem only became more unmanageable, and by the fall of 1814, soldiers’ pay was between six and 12 months in arrears.
Mexican-American War
Designated the Regular Army during the Mexican-American War, the US forces consisted of specialized infantry, artillery, cavalry and the engineering corps. It was made up of only 7,365 at the outbreak of the conflict, with its core consisting of eight infantry regiments.
Those wishing to serve enlisted for five years, with troops earning a salary of around $7.00 a month. The low wage meant those with few job opportunities and a poor educated joined, as did foreign nationals. By 1845, 42 percent of those serving were from foreign nations – 50 percent were Irish, while the rest originated from other European countries.
Battle of Buena Vista, also known as the Battle of Angostura. (Photo Credit: Photo12 / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
In desperate times, the government could call on volunteers to enlist in state-raised regiments, as allowed under the Militia Act of 1792, and these regiments were compelled to serve wherever the War Department chose. However, state militias could not be made to serve beyond their home state’s boundaries.
American Civil War
Troops’ salaries between the Confederate and Union armies during the American Civil War differed:
Privates – $11.00 (Confederacy) vs. $13.00 (Union)
Corporals – Both received $13.00
Sergeants– Both received $17.00
First Sergeants – Both received $20.00
Quartermaster Sergeants and Sergeant Majors – Both earned $21.00
Second Lieutenant – $80.00 (Confederacy) vs. $105.50 (Union)
First Lieutenant – $90.00 (Confederacy) vs. $105.50 (Union)
Captain – $130.00 (Confederacy) vs. $115.50 (Union)
Major – $150.00 (Confederacy) vs. $169.00 (Union)
Lieutenant Colonel – $170.00 (Confederacy) vs. $181.00 (Union)
Colonel – $195.00 (Confederacy) vs. $212.00 (Union)
Brigadier General – $301.00 (Confederacy) vs. $315.00 (Union)
Major General – $301.00 (Confederacy) vs. $457.00 (Union)
Lieutenant General – $301.00 (Confederacy) vs. $748.00 (Union)
General – $301.00 (Confederacy)
Officer pay for both sides included allowances, which the salaries of Confederate generals didn’t reflect. As well, all Confederate generals received the same base pay, as regulations recognized just one grade above the rank of colonel. However, generals holding different commands were afforded additional allowances, and those commanding in the field received an additional $100.00.
The Union Army’s 96th Pennsylvanian Regiment. (Photo Credit: MPI / Getty Images)
US Colored Troops were paid a meager salary of $10.00 a month for the majority of the war, of which $3.00 was deducted for clothing allowances. While soldiers on both sides were meant to be paid every two months, this rarely happened, due to the great distances the military paymaster had to travel.
Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War saw the end of Spanish colonial rule in America and allowed the US to acquire territories in Latin America and the western Pacific. During the conflict, Army privates were paid a monthly salary of $13.00, the same as during the Civil War. However, unlike in previous years, its value was higher, due to deflation.
American soldiers walking along the coast of Manila. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
According to a newspaper article published in the Rome-News Tribune on February 17, 1980, one private’s pay was eventually increased to a “whopping” $30.00 a month, a massive increase for those used to being paid just a third of that amount.
World War I
World War I was a brutal conflict, featuring trench warfare, bloody battles and the introduction of poison gas. Troops serving in Europe received varied salaries based on the number of years they’d been enlisted. For example, a private in their first year of service earned $30.00 a month, while corporals received a salary of $36.00.
A full list of pay for each section of the Army, as well as the salary increases for each year of service, can be found here.
American soldiers in Alsace. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
On top of their monthly salaries, troops were also provided life insurance through the War Risk Insurance Program. This was due to commercial insurance companies either charging higher premiums for soldiers or excluding protection against the hazards of war.
World War II
Prior to World War II, serving in the military wasn’t everyone’s first choice in career. In 1939, the Army featured a roster of 189,839 servicemen. That changed following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and by 1945 there were 8,267,958 enlisted.
Salaries vary depending on the source. According to Moneywise, privates were paid $21.00 prior to the US entering the war, a total that increased to $50 in September 1942. The National WWII Museum, on the other hand, lists the average base pay for enlisted servicemen at $71.33, with officers earning a salary of $203.50.
WWII also saw the introduction of Badge Pay for combat infantry members, due to the hazardous conditions they fought in. The initiative awarded $10.00 a month to holders of the Combat Infantryman’s Badge, earned through combat service, while those with the Expert Infantryman’s Badge, earned through proficiency training, were given $5.00.
Korean War
The Korean War began with 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People’s Army crossing the 38th parallel, which split it from the Republic of Korea. Three years of intense fighting followed.
US soldiers digging into a hill. (Photo Credit: MPI / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
As with previous wars, the monthly salary troops received depended on their rank and the length of time served. For example, in 1952, an E-1 with less than four months of service was paid $78.00, while an E-7 earned a monthly salary of $206.39. There were other variables that affected this total, including Aviation Pay, Submarine Duty Pay, and Sea and Foreign Duty Pay.
In 1952, Combat Pay for deployed servicemen became the first modern form of direct combat compensation, awarding $45.00 a month to those who’d served at least six days in designated “combat units,” as well as those who’d been wounded, killed or injured by enemy fire.
Vietnam War
E-1 wages remained the same between 1952 and ’58, meaning troops among the Army’s lower ranks made the same salary in both the Korean and Vietnam wars. However, when inflation was factored in, those serving in Vietnam were actually earning less.
As the conflict progressed, new troops were given a salary of $78.00, while those who’d served over four months earned $83.20.
Men of the US 173rd Airborne Brigade. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
In 1963, Combat Pay was renamed Hostile Fire Pay (HFP) and remained relatively the same. The only difference was that the Department of Defense was granted near-complete discretion over how it was administered, leading to multiple changes. This included the rescinding of the six-day criterion and the introduction of “zonal eligibility.”
Gulf War
In August 1990, Suddam Hussein ordered his forces to invade Kuwait. Other Middle Eastern countries called for the US and the United Nations to intervene, and the UN’s Security Council set a deadline for him to withdraw forces by the middle of January 1991. When he failed to do this, the US launched Operation Desert Storm.
US soldiers saying an oath to the US Army. (Photo Credit: Eric BOUVET / Gamma-Rapho / Getty Images)
According to Business Insider, those serving in Iraq with over four months of experience were making $753.90 a month, while those with less than that earned around $697.20. They were also eligible for Hostile Fire Pay/Imminent Danger Pay.
Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq
The US began the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq in 2001 and 2003, respectively. With the War in Iraq, deployed troops were making just a few hundred dollars more than those who’d served in the Gulf War. Veterans earned a monthly salary of $1,150.80 and those with less than four months under their belt took home just $1,064.70.
Operation Mountain Thrust. (Photo Credit: John Moore / Getty Images)
America officially withdrew its troops from Afghanistan in August 2021, which drew criticism from military officials, politicians and society as a whole, due to the Taliban taking control of Kabul, the country’s capital.
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is located in Arlington National Cemetery, in Virginia, United States and is one of the most symbolic and hollowed sites in the country. The tomb represents and is dedicated to the U.S. service members lost but never identified in the nation’s wars.
The tomb was originally constructed just after WWI to bury a single unknown American soldier killed during the Great War. The idea was “to bring home the body of an unknown American warrior who in himself represents no section, creed, or race in the late war and who typifies, moreover, the soul of America and the supreme sacrifice of her heroic dead.”
Although it’s an iconic place in America, there are many traditions and stories relating to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, some of which you may not know.
The Unknown Soldier received the Medal of Honor and Victoria Cross
The Unknown Soldier was buried in a state funeral on November 11, 1921. The ceremony was attended by President Warren G. Harding and other foreign dignitaries. Harding placed the United States’ highest award – the Medal of Honor – on top of the casket. A Victoria Cross was also placed on the casket, along with other nations’ highest awards.
View of President Warren Harding placing a wreath of flowers on the casket of the Unknown Soldier in the rotunda of the Capitol, Washington, DC, November, 1921. US Army photo. (Photo Credit: Interim Archives/Getty Images)
Four soldiers were removed from graves in France
To select the soldier to be buried within the tomb, four unknown soldiers killed during WWI were exhumed from their graves in France. Before being sent to the US, the remains of the four men were placed in caskets and arranged in random order in the city hall of Châlons-sur-Marne. Sgt. Edward F. Younger of Headquarters Company, 2nd Battalion, 50th Infantry was selected to choose one of the caskets.
Sgt. Younger then placed a spray of white roses on one of the caskets. The Unknown was then sent to the US to be interred in the tomb.
WWII and Korean War unknows were interred in the tomb
After WWII, many Americans supported the idea of placing an Unknown Soldier from WWII into the tomb but plans to do this were halted by the start of the Korean War in June 1950. Finally, in August 1956, three years after the Korean War ended, President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the internment of an Unknown from WWII and Korea.
After being selected, the Unknowns from Korea and WWII arrived in Washington D.C. on May 28, 1958. For two days they remained in the Capitol Rotunda. After this, they were placed into crypts to the west of the WWI Unknown in the Arlington National Cemetery.
The scene at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is seen here, as the casket of General of the Armies, John J. Pershing lays before the tomb for ceremonies as a salute to the “Unknown Soldier.” On steps, in the left foreground are honorary pallbearers, and in the left background are members of the family and government officials. In the group are Mrs. Warren Pershing; in the back of her are Generals Eisenhower and Bradley; also, in the front line are Secretary of State George C. Marshall, former Vice President Dawes, and Secretary of Army, Kenneth C. Royall. In the back of the casket is the black draped horse, symbolic of fallen General officers and cavalry men; lastly shown are Color Guard and Army band. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Contributor)
Selecting a soldier from WWII was complicated
Choosing an Unknown from WWII was difficult, considering American troops fought in a number of different theaters. Choosing a soldier from one theater would not represent all those lost in the war, and as a result, 13 Unknowns were selected from North Africa and Europe. Major General Edward J. O’Neill selected one of the caskets to represent those lost in the European and North African theaters.
For the Pacific, five Unknowns were exhumed and taken to Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii. Air Force Colonel Glenn T. Eagleston selected one out of the five to represent those lost in the Pacific.
On May 26, 1958, the two remaining Unknowns – one from the Pacific and the other from Europe/Africa – were placed side by side on the deck of the USS Canberra off the coast of Virginia.
Navy Hospital Corpsman 1st Class William R. Charette chose one of the two, which was then taken to Arlington National Cemetery. The WWII Unknown who was not chosen was given a burial at sea.
The Old Guard
The Old Guard is perhaps the most well-known part of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Since April 6, 1948, members of The Old Guard have stood by the tomb 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year. The members are from the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment and are also used in other military-related events.
A cavalry Soldier stands guard at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Arlington National Cemetery, Va., on March 25, 1926, the first day a permanent military guard was posted. The Old Guard has stood watch since 1948. (Photo Credit: Library of Congress)
Trained and disciplined to an extremely high level, every movement and action by Sentinels from The Old Guard has meaning. According to the Arlington National Cemetery Website:
“The Guard marches 21 steps down the black mat behind the Tomb, turns and faces east for 21 seconds, turns and faces north for 21 seconds, and then takes 21 steps down the mat. Next, the Guard executes a sharp ‘shoulder-arms’ movement to place his/her weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors, signifying that he or she stands between the Tomb and any possible threat. The number 21 symbolizes the highest symbolic military honor that can be bestowed: the 21-gun salute.”
Perhaps no other war in history has attracted as much scrutiny as the First World War. With attention comes myths, misinformation, and controversies that have the potential to persist for long periods. These myths could be potentially damaging to the soldiers and civilians who experienced the War, as well as those who have been involved in other military conflicts throughout history. Here are some of the most well-known myths surrounding the First World War that experts and historians have debunked.
1. The machine gun wasn’t responsible for the most deaths
British troops negotiate their way around a rainwater-filled shell crater near the Western Front during World War I. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection/ CORBIS/ Corbis/ Getty Images)
Some people believe that the machine gun was responsible for the majority of the deaths in the First World War. The reason for this misconception is most likely because the machine gun is the weapon commonly associated with the War in popular memory, especially when we imagine troops “going over the top,” armed with machine guna, running into no-man’s land.
Although this is a powerful image, artillery weapons were actually responsible for causing the biggest number of deaths during the War. Small arms were responsible for the second largest number of casualties in the First World War. On the Western Front between 1915 and 1918, artillery was responsible for seven out of ten British casualties. These statistics were similar for the French army when it came to cause of death.
2. Soldiers didn’t live in the trenches for years
German Contingent relaxing in a trench during a lull in battle. (Photo Credit: Bettmann/ Getty Images)
The First World War saw a new kind of fighting – trench warfare. The living conditions in the trenches were awful- men were crammed together, and the trenches often were filled with water, mud, and rats. However, most soldiers only spent an average of four days at a time in a front-line trench. Soldiers would often lose their morale if they spent too much time in the trenches.
The British Army specifically rotated their men constantly in and out of the trenches. Between battles, a unit would spend only around 10 days in a month in the trench system. It was not unusual for soldiers to be out of the trench line for a month at a time.
3. The impromptu truce on Christmas 1914 wasn’t recognized everywhere
British and German meeting in No Man’s Land during unofficial true Christmas 1914. Northumberland Hussars, 7th Division, Bridoux-Banks Sector. (Photo Credit: Robert Hunt/Windmill Books/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
One of the more heartwarming stories to come out of the First World War is that the Western front observed a cease-fire on Christmas Day, 1914, to engage in a friendly game of soccer. The real story behind the truce is a little different than the mythologized version of this event.
Late on Christmas Eve 1914, men of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) heard the German troops singing Christmas carols and different patriotic songs in their trenches. They also spotted lanterns and small fir trees decorating the German trenches. On Christmas Day 1914, some British and German soldiers met in the middle of no-man’s land to take photographs and exchange gifts. A few men played an impromptu game of soccer, but a lot of the time was spent burying war casualties and repairing trenches and dugouts.
This truce was not observed everywhere along the Western front. Casualties were recorded on Christmas Day, 1914. There were some isolated incidents of soldiers holding brief truces throughout the First World War to repair trenches and gather their war dead. However, these isolated truces were not observed over the entire Western front.
4. It is called the First World War for a reason
A detachment of troops in front of the Sphinx in Egypt, circa 1916. (Photo Credit: Bettmann/ Getty Images)
Some people assume that the First World War is called so because nations worldwide fought in this conflict. After all, countries including Canada, Australia, India, and the United States all sent soldiers across the world to fight in Europe.
However, people often forget that fighting in the First World War actually took place throughout the world, not just in Europe. Many campaigns were fought on African soil, and more than one million African soldiers were involved in the conflict. Fighting also took place in the Middle East, as the Ottoman Empire allied itself with Germany during the conflict. Significant action took place in modern-day Iraq and in Egypt around the Suez Canal.
5. Women did fight in the First World War
Photograph of the staff of Maria Leontievna Bochkareva (1889-1920) a Russian woman who fought in World War I and formed the Women’s Battalion of Death. Dated 20th Century. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
It is absolutely true that the First World War was integral in furthering female suffrage worldwide. A common misconception surrounding the female contribution to the war effort is that women did not actually partake in any fighting during the First World War, and that is simply not the truth!
Indeed, the British and American armies didn’t allow women to fight in the War, but other nations involved in the conflict permitted women to be physically involved. Women from Serbia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Romania fought alongside male soldiers on the front lines. The most notable female contingent from the First World War was known as “The Women’s Battalion of Death,” led by a Russian woman named Maria Bochkareva. In 1917, Alexander Kerensky authorized Bochkareva to assemble a battalion made up of 2,000 Russian women. This battalion did see front-line service during the First World War.
6. The British really weren’t enthusiastic about the First World War
Scenes outside Buckingham Palace after Britain’s declaration of war with Germany, 4 August 1914. (Photo Credit: Daily Herald Archive/ Getty Images)
History class teaches us that the world had an utterly naive response to the First World War – that they were excited. Pictures including the one above support this myth, as these photos seem to indicate that the public responded with enthusiasm about the war.
Professor Catriona Pennell addresses this myth in a History Extra article, stating that throughout England and Ireland, “the outbreak of war on August 4 was greeted with a sense of shock and surprise. This was followed by a fortnight of chaos and dislocation as people tried to make sense of their newly frightening situation.” She says that by September 1914, the British people had accepted a need for Britain to fight, but this acceptance did not equate to blind enthusiasm for war.
It is also important to mention that learning about the start of the First World War would have invoked a very different reaction for each person. While some people may have been initially excited for the First World War, it is not fair to say that that was everyone’s reaction.
7. American ‘neutrality’ throughout the War
A group of American soldiers wave from the deck of a ship transporting them to the fighting in France, during World War I, 1917. (Photo Credit: Interim Archives/ Getty Images)
America officially adopted a policy of neutrality for the first three years of the First World War, only joining the conflict in 1917. However, American industrial strength supported the Allied war effort for the first three years of the First World War. Despite the official policy of neutrality, many Americans sympathized with Britain, France, and their allies. Many American-led groups also assisted overseas, including the Commission for the Relief of Belgium, which was headed by future American president Herbert Hoover.
This group raised funds, collected food supplies, chartered cargo ships, and organized distribution efforts to get food to civilians in Belgium.
On the morning of July 30, 1916, Manhattan was lit up by a huge flash, before being slammed by an enormous blast wave. Three men and a baby were killed; thousands of windows in lower Manhattan and Jersey City were blown out; and the Statue of Liberty was peppered with debris.
The source of the explosion? A storage depot on Black Tom Island, which held two million tons of equipment and supplies headed for Europe. The cause? German sabotage. At the time, the United States had little in the way of intelligence services, as the FBI‘s predecessor – the BOI – only had around 260 employees. As such, they struggled to get to the bottom of the explosion.
The Allies were being supplied by the United States
By this point, the Great War had been raging for two years, yet America was still a neutral country. Despite being neutral, it continued to be a key supplier for the armies fighting in Europe, with millions of tons of equipment, machines and supplies being shipped across the Atlantic Ocean.
Initially, the US was able to supply any of the war’s combatants, including Germany, but after the Royal Navy‘s blockade of Germany, it could only supply the Allied forces. Without this stream of supplies, Germany was in trouble and knew it needed to cut off the American lifeline if it wanted to defeat the Allies.
Warehouses damaged by the Black Tom explosion, 1916. (Photo Credit: US Army Signal Corps / Wikipedia / Public Domain)
Throughout the war, Germany attacked cargo vessels in the Atlantic to prevent supplies reaching Britain. These attacks proved devastating, and there was little the Allies could do to defend themselves against the threat. Germany was careful to not attack vessels from countries who were not yet involved in the conflict, as they didn’t want to provoke them into siding with the Allies.
The explosion on Black Tom Island was part of this plan to inhibit the Allies’ supply chain.
Black Tom explosion
On July 30, 1916, the supply depot on Black Tom Island contained around 1,000 tons of weapons and ordnance in train cars and on barges, ready to be shipped to Russia. One barge contained 50 tons of TNT, and was only moored at Black Tom Island to avoid a $25.00 charge.
That night, guards spotted small fires on the pier and alerted the Jersey City Fire Department. At 2:08 AM, an enormous explosion rocked the area as the TNT-laden barge blew up. The explosion measured between 5.0 and 5.5 on the Richter scale, smashed windows 25 miles away, and was heard as far away as Philadelphia.
Fire raging at the National Storage House, one of plants blown up by the Black Tom explosion, 1916. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
Debris from the explosion hit the Statue of Liberty and the clock tower of The Jersey Journal building, more than a mile away. The fragments stopped the clock at 2:12 AM. The blast caused widespread destruction on Black Tom Island, with over one hundred railcars and 13 warehouses destroyed. Four died – it’s surprising, though, that a blast of such magnitude didn’t kill more.
Overall, the explosion caused around $20 million (almost $500 million today) worth of damage to properties in the area.
The US response
Due to the limited capability and experience of the nation’s intelligence service, the US had trouble finding the culprits. As well, a lack of laws forbidding espionage or sabotage during peace time only made things more difficult. While the Secret Service investigated the matter, it was actually the New York Police Department’s bomb squad that made the most progress.
At first, the blast was thought to have been an accident, but many soon suspected sabotage. A Slovak immigrant who admitted to working for German agents during peacetime was one of the early suspects and said two of the island’s guards were also working for the Germans. However, German agent and saboteur Kurt Jahnke and his assistant, Lothar Witzke, are the most commonly accepted suspects.
Crowd gathering in the aftermath of the Black Tom explosion, 1916. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The explosion was a major factor in the American public’s increasingly negative opinion of Germany. It, submarine warfare in the Atlantic and Germany’s proposal that Mexico join the war all led to the country’s entrance into the conflict.
Other than America’s entry into the war, the Black Tom explosion brought about changes to how the US dealt with espionage, and led to the increase in the intelligence service’s capabilities. It also impacted “enemy aliens” during WWII. In 1917, Congress passed the Espionage Act, which made it harder for enemies of the US to act against the nation’s interests during wartime.
With these changes, German operations on American soil were almost entirely eliminated.
Sea mines are some of the most terrifying and destructive weapons at a navy’s disposal. Capable of wreaking havoc on fleets, they’re a staple of war that can trace their origins to Imperial China. They’ve undergone changes over the centuries, becoming the simple, yet complex explosives they are today.
What is a Sea mine?
A sea mine is an underwater explosive device designed to detonate in the presence of vessels. There are three main types. Bottom mines rest on the seafloor in shallow water. Moored mines float above the seafloor, are attached to a weight, and are used against submarines and ships. Drift mines float freely on the surface of the water and, as such, are rarely used.
There are three ways mines are laid. The first is via aircraft, the preferred method for offensive operations, as it provides rapid minefield replenishment with little risk. Similarly, mines laid by submarines are used offensively, but saved for covert missions.
The most economical option is surface laying, as ships can transport the most amount of mines. There are many complications with this method, as the navy carrying the mines has to take into account the risks associated with possibly not having control of the waters. As such, they’re typically reserved for defensive measures.
Detonation of a WWII-era mine in the Baltic Sea, 2015. (Photo Credit: Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Patrick A. Ratcliff / U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
There are countermeasures to combat the use of sea mines. Known as “minesweeping,” it involves a number of tactics, including the use of unmanned systems, advanced weaponry and sonar technology. Two ships can neutralize a minefield by dragging a cable designed to cut mooring cables, after which the mines are detonated by gunfire. As well, bottom mines can be set off by “tricking” the explosives into thinking a ship is in the vicinity.
Sea mine precursors and the American Revolution
The earliest precursors to sea mines trace back to Imperial China, where they were used against Japanese pirates. In the west, the first examples date back to the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England, and later to Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel, who was tasked by King Charles I of England to come up with new weapons, including the failed “floating petard”.
14th century drawing of a Chinese sea mine. (Photo Credit: PericlesofAthens / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The invention of the sea mine is directly attributed to David Bushnell, a Yale student who discovered gunpowder could explode underwater. In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, General George Washington granted him permission to sink a fleet of British ships in the Delaware River.
Bushnell’s mine consisted of gunpowder in a key, supported by a float on the water’s surface. Within the device was a gunlock rig, meaning the slightest impact would cause an explosion. It took out a small frigate, HMS Cerberus, killing four.
Global use during the 19th century
While US use was of sea mines was scarce during the 19th century, given John Quincy Adams’ belief that their use was “not fair and honest warfare,” they were prominent in Europe, particularly in the Imperial Russian Navy.
Example of a Nobel mine, invented by Alfred Nobel. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
In 1812, Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a sea mine using an electrical circuit, and in 1853 the Jacobi mine was invented. Tied to the seafloor by an anchor, it used a cable connected to a galvanic cell powered from shore. The production of the mine was approved by the Committee for Mines and eventually phased out its competitor, the Nobel mine.
The Imperial Russian Navy also used sea mines during the Russo-Turkish and Crimean wars, the latter of which saw the laying of over 1,500 mines in the Gulf of Finland.
Sketch of an American Civil War-era mine – known as an “infernal machine” – in the Potomac River, 1861. (Photo Credit: Alfred Waud / Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
During the American Civil War, the Confederate Navy used sea mines against the Union naval force, sinking the USS Cairo in the Yazoo River and 27 Federal vessels during the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1964.
After 1865, the US chose the sea mine as its primary weapon for coastal defense. Initially controlled by the US Army Corps of Engineers, it was later the responsibility of the Artillery Corps, before being given to the Coast Artillery Corps in 1907.
Development during WWI and WWII
Following the conclusion of the Russo-Japanese War, there was an attempt to have sea mines banned as weapons of war at the 1907 Hague Peace Conference. This didn’t happen. However, it was decided drifting mines would be outlawed, due to their uncontrollable nature.
British naval personnel laying mines, October 1914. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Throughout the course of World War I, sea mines were used as a defensive measure against German U-boats. An example of this was the North Sea Barrage, which the Allies began laying in 1918. It spanned 250 miles from Scotland to Norway, and consisted of 72,000 mines, taking out six submarines and damaging numerous German vessels.
The Germans fought back with their own mines, sinking British merchant and naval vessels. One of the German Navy’s most successful mining campaigns was the sinking of the HMHS Britannic by SM U-73.
Bomb disposal experts pulling a mine out of the waters off the coast of southeast Britain, February 1940. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)
World War II saw sea mines become an offensive, rather than defensive, weapon. German U-boats patrolling the Atlantic used them to mine British ports and routes, and the overall design of the explosives changed. While before they only detonated upon contact, they could now explode based on acoustic, magnetic and pressure changes in the water – they were even programmed to only detonate against certain ships.
One of the largest strategic uses of sea mines was Operation Starvation, in which the US Navy laid 12,000 mines along Japanese shipping routes in the Pacific. This not only sank 650 Japanese ships, it showed how they could be used for psychological warfare, as nearly all ships were made to stay in port or divert course.
Sea mines in the post-WWII era
Following the end of WWII, sea mines largely fell out of use, as the majority of countries were scaling back their militaries. This was especially true of the US, as its military believed they would not be a part of advanced warfare. However, it found that its disregard for the explosives greatly affected their abilities during the Korean War.
The Korean Navy held up the US fleet for almost a week, despite having only 45 vessels, because it laid 3,000 mines in the waters off North Korea. As well, 70 percent of the US Navy’s losses in Korea were the result of mine warfare, made worse by the fact that only two percent of sailors were trained in minesweeping. This prompted US Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Forrest Sherman to change the service’s stance.
Mineman Second Class Franklin Marshall of the US Navy’s Explosive Ordnance Disposal Team searches for mines in DaNang Harbor, Vietnam, April 1966. (Photo Credit: US Navy / Interim Archives / Getty Images)
The US developed the Destructor-class of mines in 1967, and while highly-sophisticated, they were rarely used in Vietnam. The Quickstrike Mine was favored by US military forces, as it was relatively cheap, developed for strategic use and could be used defensively.
Sea mines continued to be used in conflicts between the Vietnam and Gulf wars. Once the Gulf War began, they became the explosive of choice for the Iraqi Navy, inflicting severe damage on the USS Tripoli (LPH-10) and USS Princeton (CG-59). Upon the war’s conclusion, eight countries conducted clearance operations in the Persian Gulf.
The use of sea mines today
Given the destructiveness of sea mines, international law now requires that all signatory countries declare areas in which they’ve been placed. However, this is not a full-proof system, as the exact locations are not revealed. As well, some countries refuse to comply with the law and therefore do not disclose such information.
Members of a US Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal team inspect mines camouflaged as barrels on the deck of an Iraqi shipping barge in the Arabian Gulf, March 21, 2003. (Photo Credit: Richard Moore / U.S. Navy / Getty Images)
Today, the US uses two different types of mines. The first is the aforementioned Quickstrike Mine, designed for use against subsurface and surface craft. They’re placed in shallow waters by aircraft. The second is the Submarine-Launched Mobile Mine (SLMM). As the name suggests, it’s deployed by submarines and typically used in areas where other mine-laying techniques aren’t an option. Each SLMM is equipped with an MK37 torpedo that has a mine target detection device.
Aside from a flame thrower, there are few close-range weapons as deadly as a shotgun. Shotguns are terrifyingly effective at short ranges, as their shot spread does not need to be precisely aimed to score a hit. At longer ranges, a shotgun peppers the target with fast-moving metal balls, while at close ranges shotguns can effortlessly inflict horrific wounds. For these reasons, the shotgun has found itself at home in close quarters combat in wartime, sometimes controversially. Until the 1960s the United States’ shotguns of choice have been the Winchester Model 1897 and 1912.
Both of these shotguns started life as commercially-sold firearms but quickly proved themselves on the battlefield.
Model 1897
A Winchester Model 1897 (Photo Credit: Asams10 / Wikipedia / Public Domain)
The first of these was the Model 1897. This pump-action shotgun was produced by the Winchester Repeating Arms company and set the standard for which all shotguns that followed were measured against. As its name suggests it was introduced in 1897. Amazingly, this weapon stayed in production until 1957, with over 1 million being built in total. This makes the Model 1897 one of the most successful pump-action shotguns of all time.
Despite being manufactured by Winchester, the Model 1897 was actually designed by the legendary and massively influential gun designer John Browning. It was an improvement on the Model 1893 shotgun – also designed by Browning – that could fire smokeless powder shells and be broken down into individual parts.
With this “take down” ability the 1897’s barrel and magazine could be completely removed, which made transportation and maintenance easier. The concept of a removable barrel is now standard for pump-action shotguns.
The gun came in either 16 or 12 gauge and with a number of different barrel lengths, ranging from 20 to 36 inches. One of the 1897’s most noticeable design features is its external hammer, which protrudes out of the back of the receiver when the pump is slid back to cycle the gun. This action ejects the spent shell, cocks the hammer, and pushes a new shell into the chamber. Interestingly, this shotgun lacks a trigger disconnector, which means if the trigger is held down, the gun will fire as soon as the pump returns to its home position. Because of this the Model 1897 can be fired at very high speeds.
The Model 1897’s first use in combat was with US troops in the Philippine-American War of 1899. Not only was it the weapon’s first time in war, but it was also the first shotgun issued by the US military on a large scale. However, the 1897 rose to fame after America joined the First World War.
Realizing that rifles were not suited to the extremely close-quarters fighting happening in the trenches of the Great War, the US brought in the Model 1897 for these exact circumstances. For trench use, pre-existing Model 1897’s were modified with a perforated heat shield that covered the barrel – stopping the user from burning their hands – and a bayonet lug. In this form, the weapon was known as the Trench Gun.
Its high fire rate, devastating power, and 20-inch barrel made it extremely good at clearing trenches. Reportedly, experienced trap shooters in the ranks were given Model 1897s and blasted enemy grenades out of the air.
The shotgun was so deadly that Germany famously protested against its use, stating it caused “unnecessary suffering”. This was an interesting view coming from a country that fielded chemical weapons. As the Germans claimed that the shotgun broke the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare the US took the situation seriously. When they determined there was no foul play involved, Germany responded with threats to punish any captured American shotgun-users.
The Model 1897 was once again used in WWII, and even in Vietnam in limited numbers. By this time though it had been mostly replaced by the Model 1912.
Model 1912
Winchester Model 1912 (Model 12) take-down slide-action (pump-action) 12 gauge shotgun manufactured in 1948 (Photo Credit: Yaf / Wikipedia / Photo Credit)
The Model 1912 succeeded the Model 1897 in much the same way the Model 1897 did to the 1893. Although this time the weapon was designed by T.C. Johnson, not Browning. As an evolutionary next step from the Model 1897, the Model 1912 had an internal hammer but retained the same pump-action and ability to fire when the action was closed. Starting production in 1912 and ending in 1964, almost 2 million Model 1912s were built.
Like its predecessor, this shotgun was used in WWI, WWII, Korea, and Vietnam, where it was also given a perforated heat shield and bayonet lug. The weapon was mainly used in the Pacific theatre of WWII by US Marines against the Japanese, once again to great success. Deadly, reliable, and compact, it was perfectly suited to clearing Japanese positions and bunkers.
The Model 1912 was a sturdy, well-engineered weapon that, along with the 1897, set the standard for shotgun designs. However, by the 1960s this relatively expensive shotgun was simply unable to compete with newer, cheaper designs from rival manufacturers. For this reason, the Model 1812 was discontinued in 1964, seven years after the Model 1897.
Illustration showing a Royal Navy Dreadnought battleship 1906. (Photo by: Universal History Archive/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
The HMS Dreadnought was a vessel that quite literally changed the path of naval warfare and design philosophy. She brought in a whole host of new and revolutionary features that rendered every battleship that had come before her obsolete overnight. Fast, well armored, and carrying heavy guns that were complemented by an effective fire control system, it was the most powerful ship in the world. In fact, she was so influential that she spawned an entire generation of battleships named dreadnoughts.
For all of her greatness, Dreadnought served a relatively lackluster career and was quickly superseded and rendered obsolete by the very arms race she sparked. With that being said, it carries the notable distinction of being the only battleship to sink a submarine.
Before Dreadnought
Before the hull of Dreadnought was laid down, battleship designs mostly followed the expected means of fighting at sea: by saturating the enemy with overwhelming firepower at relatively close ranges. As such, battleships were armed with guns widely varying in caliber to handle different threats at different ranges.
This started to change toward the end of the 19th century and early 20th century though. Advances in optics, the increasing use of torpedoes, and improvements in weapon accuracy meant ships were more vulnerable at close ranges than before. To negate these threats, battleships needed to operate further away from their target.
As ranges grew, guns grew larger to maintain their effectiveness. Eventually, ships were using heavy guns bigger than 10 inches in caliber and firing at ranges so large that observers had to wait for the shells to actually reach the target before making corrections. The massive assortment of smaller weapons still found on ships caused problems, with the smoke they generated blinded observers. Furthermore, it was hard for observers to tell which shell splashes occurred from which guns, as the target would become bracketed in fire by all available calibers.
Because of this, naval designers were progressing towards the idea of “all big gun” ships. These vessels would carry a powerful main armament that served as the primary offensive battery at the expense of many smaller guns. Navies around the world were slowly working towards this arrangement when the British dropped HMS Dreadnought.
It was the sixth British vessel to use the fearsome name, which meant “fear nothing”.
Entering service in 1906, this battleship revolutionized how battleships were not only built but how they were used.
HMS Dreadnought
Placed in reserve in 1919, the once-revolutionary warship was sold for scrap in 1922. Circa 1906. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror Archive / Mirrorpix / Mirrorpix via Getty Images)
The ship possessed a number of attributes that had not yet been seen all on one ship before. Naturally, as a battleship, she carried large and powerful guns, but hers were different. She was one of the first battleships to be fitted with a number of instruments that not only helped establish a targets range and its required lead but also sent that information electronically to each turret.
Regarding the weapons themselves, she carried a mighty armament of ten 12 inch guns, mounted in five turrets – two guns per turret. Dreadnought did not feature superfiring gun turrets but instead had one forward turret and two rear turrets. Slightly forward of the ship’s mid-section were another two 12 inch gun turrets flanking the forward turret when viewed from the front. This arrangement allowed Dreadnought to fire an eight-gun broadside.
Aside from this, she carried twenty-seven 12-pdr (3 in (76 mm)) guns.
In terms of armor, Dreadnought was similar to the pre-Dreadnought Lord Nelson class – up to 305 mm on the gun turrets and 280 mm on the belt.
The Dreadnought battleship at Spithead, launched on February 10, 1906, United Kingdom, from L’Illustrazione Italiana, Year XXXIII, No 46, November 18, 1906.
While these features were certainly impressive, what truly set Dreadnought apart from the rest was that she did all this while being exceptionally fast. One of the main design requirements for the vessel was that she had to be quick. Previously, battleships usually prioritized firepower and armor over speed, but Dreadnought did it all.
She was the first battleship to be powered by turbines instead of the older reciprocating triple-expansion steam engines. This meant that while older battleships were chugging along at around 18 knots, Dreadnought – all 22,000 tons of her – was cruising at 21 knots.
Upon her introduction, her impact was so great that, ironically, it made navies around the world react at a previously unseen speed. Soon, navies had ships that at the very least rivaled Dreadnought and in many cases superseded her. Over the next decade, much more powerful ships would enter service, armed with larger guns and even thicker armor. These were known as super-dreadnoughts.
As a piece of technology Dreadnought was groundbreaking, however, her career was rather unimpressive. She served as the Home Fleet’s flagship for a while but was replaced in 1912 by more capable vessels. In 1915 a German U-boat snuck into Pentland Firth in an attempt to sink ships from the Grand Fleet.
The U-29 was spotted after firing her torpedoes and then subsequently chased down by Dreadnought. The flagship rammed into the submarine, cutting the sub in half and taking all hands. The chase only lasted a few minutes.
As WWI went on it became clear that the now decade-old battleship was past her prime. When the war ended Dreadnought was placed into reserve and scrapped in 1923.
Soldiers of the Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) line up for Fish and Chips from a mobile shop set up in the Wathgill Camp during Territorial manoeuvers on 4 August 1936 in Richmond, Yorkshire, United Kingdom. (Photo by Fox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
You may take our tea, sugar, biscuits, and jam, but not our fish and chips!
To defeat Germany during WWII the British population had to give up staple items, mostly without much objection. They were prepared to have their gas, bacon, sugar, and butter rationed for the sake of winning the war, but fish and chips were one step too far. This classic British dish continued to be consumed without interruption for the duration of the war.
As suggested by the name, the humble meal of fish and chips contains fried fish in a crispy batter served with a portion of chips. It is not known where exactly this meal originated from, but it was extremely popular by the late 1800s. At the start of the 20th century, there were over 20,000 fish and chip shops in Britain.
Alongside tea, the meal has since become a symbol of British culture, even though ironically its two main components come from different cultures. During both world wars, fish and chips were one of the only meals that were consistently available. It was feared that if the British population was denied their fish and chips morale would suffer.
Rationing
Members of the Women’s Land Army (WLA) stacking and protecting potatoes from frost with layers of straw during the potato harvest on 28th September 1939 on farmland in Monmouthshire, South Wales, United Kingdom. (Photo by Maeers/Fox Photos/Hulton Archive/Getty Images).
During the world wars, military production and disruption in supply chains meant many foods and other staples of everyday items were less available, or completely impossible to source. To make sure that everyone had a fair share of these small supplies, the British government introduced rationing. At first, this affected fuel, but later came to include basics such as eggs, sugar, and jam. Meat was also rationed, although game meat was not. Things that were not rationed, like some fruits and vegetables, were still hard to come by.
The Ministry of Food issued everyone in Britain a ration book which was used to purchase foods from a specific shop. These designated shops received an allocated amount of food to be sold.
Rationing became a source of morale-boosting campaigns, like “Dig for Victory.” Governmental officials also received ration books, which helped the population feel at ease that they weren’t being unfairly treated. Even Her Majesty The Queen had one. A princess at the time, Elizabeth saved up her clothing coupons to purchase enough material to make her wedding dress.
Meanwhile, fish and chips remained a popular meal.
Maintaining fish and chips
7th April 1943: Shoppers queue for their fish in Eltham. This particular shopkeeper has posted a notice that only local people will be served and identity cards inspected before the purchase can be made. (Photo by Fox Photos/Getty Images)
The government ensured that there was a continuous supply of fish and potatoes during WWI and WWII.
This was important, as the supply chain for the meal, particularly the fish, was heavily disrupted. Many fishing vessels had been requisitioned by the Royal Navy, and those still in use were subject to attacks from German U-boats. The price of fish rose considerably, but the government managed to maintain a steady supply.
Reportedly the quality of the meal suffered, as Britons lacked decent fat for frying.
Bevin Boys make a lunch of fish and chips on January 23, 1944. (Photo by Daily Herald Archive/National Science & Media Museum/SSPL via Getty Images)
Not only was fish and chips an enjoyable meal, but it also saved lives in combat zones. British troops were known to use the name of the popular dish to identify friendly troops: one would shout fish, and the other would reply chips.
During WWI it is suspected that fish and chips were fed to British troops in the trenches and functioned as a key food for keeping hunger away. Belgian caterers fed British troops large quantities of oil-fried potatoes.
