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Epic of Gilgamesh’ is not the first literary source that mentions the name ‘Gilgamesh,’ who was the fifth ruler of the dynasty of Uruk and a demigod with superhuman strength that helped him to build the defensive walls of Uruk

According to the Sumerian King List, he ruled the city of Uruk for 126 years.

One old legend, “Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish’ mentions Gilgamesh – long before the famous epic. The legend is a short Sumerian story devoted to an armed confrontation between the two contemporary kings, Gilgamesh of Uruk and Agga of Kish (also referred to as Akka of Kish).

This short Sumerian story – most probably based on one of the many historical wars between the city-states of Sumer – tells how Gilgamesh defeated the neighboring city of Kish, which, according to the Sumerian King List, was the first city to have kings following the deluge.

War began when Agga, king of Kish, sent envoys to Uruk demanding submission.

Gilgamesh met with Uruk’s elders to discuss the response.

Iraq. Kish. (Tel-Uhaimir). The ruling city immediately after the deluge. The ancient ruins showing extensive remains. Matson Collection – Library of Congress Catalog – Original url

Gilgamesh was ready to resist, having an assembly of the Uruk’s fighting men on his side. The city elders, however, preferred surrender as the city of Kish was powerful, and so was its ruler, Agga, the son of Enmebaragesi, a historical king, according to the earliest cuneiform inscription bearing the name of ‘Enmebaragesi of Kish.’

The city elders, however, preferred surrender as the city of Kish was powerful. It so was its ruler, Agga, the son of Enmebaragesi, a historical king, according to the earliest cuneiform inscription bearing the name of ‘Enmebaragesi of Kish.’

Enmebaragesi is known from several inscriptions found on fragments of vases of his own time, as well as from later traditions; one inscription asserts that he “despoiled the weapons of the land of Elam…”

He was the next-to-last ruler of the first dynasty of Kish. His son, Agga, was the dynasty’s last king, owing to his defeat by Gilgamesh, according to the Sumerian epic Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish.

Agga arrived with his large army and besieged Uruk, but surprisingly, Gilgamesh was not particularly frightened. Instead, he told his right-hand, trusted man, Enkidu, to gather weapons to demonstrate the strength that would startle and confuse the mighty Agga.

Also, Birhurture, who was Gilgamesh’s bodyguard and a trusted servant, was sent to the enemy’s camp to sow doubt and fear.

At some point, Gilgamesh’s majestic figure appeared on the city’s walls; the gates were thrown open, and Uruk, all warriors commanded by Enkidu, emerged in full battle formation to fight against King Agga of Kish.

Agga was taken captive, but Gilgamesh spared Agga’s life. The great king of Uruk had a debt of honor to the aggressor; he once found refuge in Kish, and Agga saved his life.

For many years, the kings of Babylon took the title ‘King of Kish’ after the legendary days of Kish’s independence.

Written by – A. Sutherland  – AncientPages.com Senior Staff Writer

Updated on November 17, 2023

 The enduring mysteries of ancient Egypt keep fascinating archaeologists, historians, and the public alike.

The Land of the Pharaohs refuses to give up its secrets, and despite countless magnificent archaeological finds, we tend to encounter riddles all over Egypt. Buried beneath the sands lie the tremendous treasure of one of the most powerful ancient civilizations of all time, the ancient Egyptians.

Dashur pyramid. Credit: Adobe Stock – Maria Vazquez

Sometimes archaeologists arrive too late at the site, leaving us with ancient mysteries that may never be solved. That is the beauty but tragedy of ancient Egyptian history. Magnificent ancient tombs have long been looted, and we may never know to whom the burial places belonged.

Located about 15 miles south of Cario, the Dashur complex is famous for its incredible structures constructed during the era of the Old Kingdom. Dashur complex consists of pyramids, mortuary temples, and other unexplored buildings.

The site where the previously unknown pyramid was discovered. Credit: Smithsonian Channel

It “would confirm or adjust the entire time frame of the extraordinary developmental phase of Egyptian civilization that saw the biggest pyramids built, the nomes (administrative districts) organized, and the hinterlands internally colonized – that is, the first consolidation of the Egyptian nation-state. ” ¹

Many ancient Egyptian pyramids have been destroyed, but still, several are hidden beneath the sands awaiting scientific exploration. One such intriguing ancient structure is the newly-discovered pyramid in Dashur, Dahshur, a previously inaccessible site relatively unknown to the public. Dashur is an ancient cemetery known mainly for several pyramids, two of which are among the oldest, largest, and best-preserved in Egypt, built from 2613–2589 BC. Two of the Dahshur Pyramids, the Bent Pyramid and the Red Pyramid, were constructed during the reign of Pharaoh Sneferu (2613-2589 BC).

The Bent Pyramid was the first attempt at a smooth-sided pyramid, but it was not a successful achievement, and Sneferu decided to build another called the Red Pyramid.

Inside the little-known Dashur pyramid. Credit: Smithsonian Channel

Several other pyramids of the 13th Dynasty were built at Dahshur, but many are covered by sand, almost impossible to detect.

In 2017, Dr. Chris Naunton, President of the International Association of Egyptologists, traveled to Dashur together with the crew of the Smithsonian Channel and documented the exciting findings of one particular pyramid.

What the team discovered is a bit like an ancient detective story. Local archaeologists had found heavy blocks of finely cut limestone buried deep in the sand. Egypt’s Ministry of Antiquity was informed about the discovery, and archaeologists were sent to the site to excavate.

The burial chamber was sealed but some had been inside and looted. Credit: Smithsonian Channel

Having worked long and hard, archaeologists finally uncovered a previously unknown pyramid. Still, the most exciting part was the discovery of a secret passage that led from the pyramid’s entrance to an underground complex at the very heart of the pyramid. The heavy and huge limestone blocks protected the chamber, ensuring no one could pass easily and explore whatever was hidden inside the mysterious ancient pyramid.

The obstacles did not discourage archeologists, who successfully managed to enter the pyramid’s interior after some days of work. Everything seemed to indicate the unknown pyramid at Dashur contained ancient treasures and most likely a mummy.

Credit: Smithsonian Channel

When scientists found themselves inside the burial chamber, they were astounded to see someone had visited this ancient place long before them. The Dashur pyramid had been robbed about 4,000 years ago. Looting pyramids in the past was quite common, and the Dashur pyramid was one of many robbery victims.

One can understand Dr. Naunton’s disappointment when he glanced into the empty burial chamber, but this discovery is intriguing and raises specific questions.

Was a mummy stolen from the Dashur pyramid? Maybe or maybe not. How did looters get past the untouched seal? Did the original ancient builders plunder the burial chamber before they sealed it?  These are some of the many questions this ancient Egyptian mystery pose.

Updated on November 18, 2023

Written by  Ellen Lloyd – AncientPages.com

Copyright © AncientPages.com  All rights rese

Aztec and Maya civilizations are household names – but it’s the Olmecs who are the ‘mother culture’ of ancient Mesoamerica.

Jade Olmec warriors mask from Tabasco (Mexico). Musées Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels (Belgium). Credit: Michel Wal – CC BY-SA 3.0s

An extremely important 1-ton sculpture, sometimes referred to by archaeologists as an “Earth Monster” or Monument 9, was repatriated to Mexico from a private collection in Colorado in May 2023, according to an announcement from Mexico’s Consul General in New York . The monument features the head of a front-facing creature with a gaping mouth: a supernatural being that represented the living, animate earth to an ancient culture in Central America and Mexico.

This sculpture was reportedly found at the base of a hill at Chalcatzingo, an archaeological site some 80 miles (130 kilometers) south of Mexico City, and dates to roughly 600 B.C. Chalcatzingo is closely related to Olmec culture, one of the earliest in ancient Mesoamerica.

I am an archaeologist specializing in Mesoamerica: an area that encompassed present-day southern Mexico, parts of Costa Rica and all of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua. I have visited Chalcatzingo many times while researching the development of this rich cultural region.

Elaborate art

The Olmec heartland was in what are now the Mexican states of Tabasco and southern Veracruz, along the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Much of their influence was based on economic wealth from corn.

Of Olmec art that has survived the centuries, their carved heads are particularly striking and well known. By 1000 B.C., Olmec sculptors at San Lorenzo, Mexico, had fashioned no fewer than 10 colossal heads, all over 6 feet high. Archaeologists believe these are individualized portraits of rulers, each with their own specific headdress: depictions of specific people, which is quite rare in New World art.

The Olmecs were also masters in the carving of jade. I was involved in locating the original Olmec and Maya jadeite sources in highland eastern Guatemala, found in stone outcrops often located about 6,000 feet above sea level.

Colorado Lt. Gov. Dianne Primavera, left, is shown a photograph of Monument 9 before it was returned to Mexico. AP Photo/David Zalubowski

Artisans beginning around 900 B.C. carved life-size jade masks that almost look like molded plastic, but which must have been the result of a laborious process to grind and polish this extremely hard, dense stone.

Sacred system

All Olmec sculpture was created for a purpose, whether it be religious or political. In the case of Monument 9, it clearly pertains to the Earth, which in Mesoamerica was considered a sacred, living being.

A cup showing the Olmec maize god as growing corn. Credit: The Art Institute of Chicago – Public Domain

As a tall grass, corn needs a great deal of water to survive the summer, making rain all-important. Trying to please the rain god in return for rain was a vital part of Olmec religion.

The Olmec spread similar practices and beliefs across ancient Mexico and Guatemala, probably in part to engage other peoples more directly with their economic trade network. Rather than an empire of domination, the Olmec were a culture focused on agricultural abundance and wealth.

Sacred mountains were of extreme importance as well, as can be seen at Chalcatzingo and at a hill called Cerro El Manatí, located very close to the site at San Lorenzo. At this hill, there is a perennial spring with sweet freshwater that fills a pool below at the base. In this pool, the Olmec offered a huge amount of valued material, including rubber balls for ritual sport, as well as many jadeite axes. According to two scholars of Mesoamerica, Ponciano Ortiz and Mari´a del Carmen Rodri´guez, this is the first clear example of a sacred mountain of abundance, which persists in Mesoamerican belief and ritual to this day.

Earth Monster’s home

Far to the west of the Olmec heartland, in the Mexican state of Morelos, is Cerro Chalcatzingo, the site where the Earth Monster monument originated. Here, the Olmec focus on the mountain as a provider of wealth and sustenance, portrayed in several sculptures as a cave.

Even before Olmec times, the idea of fertile caves was shown as a four-lobed motif resembling a flower – an important symbol that continued even into the 16th century with the Aztec.

The most famous Olmec bedrock carving at Chalcatzingo is called Monument 1 and features a woman in profile – probably a goddess – seated within the cave.

An Olmec structure at the archaeological site in Chalcatzingo. Ihiroalfonso/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA

This carving is directly above where rainwater pours down from the top of the mountain. Below are what archaeologists call “cupules”: cuplike holes carved in bedrock directly below to receive this water, and collected by priests and pilgrims. On the opposite side of the hill is another rock carving featuring the same cave in profile, facing Monument 1.

Sadly, Monument 9, which was recently returned to Mexico, was looted from the site, so its original context is unknown. In archaeology, it is important to understand not only when an object was made and who created it, but where it was placed. Nonetheless, Monument 9 portrays the same cave as two other sculptures at the site, which are carved directly into the rock surface of the mountain.

Monument 9 is significant, as it denotes the central Earth Monster cave, and unlike the other two Olmec carvings, it is face-on rather than rendered in profile. It probably was placed against a mound with its open mouth leading to a chamber inside, symbolizing a portal to the underworld.

That this highly sacred object is back in Mexico is of utmost importance for Indigenous Mexicans. To its creators, Monument 9 likely represented the source of life and abundance, as well as sacred rituals associated with them – ideas and practices that pervaded subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations.

Written by Karl Taube, Distinguished Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Riverside.

Provided by The Conversation 

 In northern Louisiana, North America, there is a very interesting and mysterious ancient site known as Watson Brake. This ancient site challenges our knowledge about North American history as the mounds are some of the earliest known remnants of human construction in the New World.

Mounds At Watson Brake Were Raised By Complex Ancient Society

Located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River near Monroe, Watson Brake consists of 11 ancient mounds that measure from three to 25 feet in height.

Some sections of the oval-shaped earth berm probably have been eroded by rains and floods during the past 5,000 years. Credit: Northeastern State University

The construction of the mounds started about 5,400 years ago, predating other similar public architecture at Indian sites by nearly 2,000 years. This suggests the region was inhabited by a pre-agriculture, pre-ceramic hunting society that was much more socially complex than previously thought.

What we understand about the Mound Builders is changing due to research in the last decade.

What Was the Purpose Of The Mounds?

According to many archaeologists, the purpose of the mounds is unknown. Since no human remains or ceremonial objects have been found, perhaps the mounds were not used for burial or religious purposes.

Artist’s conception of Watson Brake. Credit: Herb Roe – CC BY-SA 4.0

On the other hand, the area enclosed by the mounds was kept clean of debris, suggesting its use as a ritual space. The reasons why such elaborate activities first occurred here remain elusive. Another possibility is that the mounds were originally built to protect Native Americans from floods.h

Yet, it seems logical to assume our ancestors must have had a reason for building these mounds. The surfaces of the ridges and mounds show little evidence of occupation, leading archaeologists to believe that Watson Brake was occupied primarily before and during the building of the mounds.

William F. Romain, Ph.D., who runs the Ancient Earthworks Project, believes Watson Brake is the oldest solstice-aligned earthwork complex in the Americas.

The ancient mounds are very difficult to access because half of the site is on private property, making it very restricted. The Archaeological Conservancy purchased the other half of the site in 1996.

In 2014, William F. Romain was finally given permission to visit the site. He invited Dick Shiels, Director of the Newark Earthworks Center, and Bill Monaghan, Associate Director of the Glenn Black Laboratory, to accompany him. Using LIDAR technology, William F. Romain discovered Watson Brake was indeed an important archaeoastronomical site that our ancestors used for sky-watching.

Watson Brake, Louisiana Credit: VR Image by Richard Thornton

Poverty Point is still a place that remains a prehistoric mystery. The massive earthworks at Poverty Point near Epps were long considered the beginning of extensive mound construction. It has been suggested that the Poverty Point octagon was the world’s largest ancient solstice marker.

Researchers now have reason to believe that mound construction was widespread by 3000 BC in northern and southern Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida based on numerous discoveries.

Were the Watson Brake mounds and massive earthworks at Poverty Point built by the same culture?

Some scientists think the ancient mounds at Watson Brake might have been raised without a purpose.

Poverty Point Octagon. Credit: Steven Patricia

“I know it sounds awfully Zen-like, but maybe the answer is that building them was the purpose, ‘Dr. Bruce D. Smith, an archeologist and specialist in early American agriculture at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, said.

Tristam Kidder, associate professor of anthropology at Tulane University, said the archaeological sites found along the Ouachita River are typical of those found elsewhere in the southeastern United States and unique. They are unique in that they are older, but the earlier sites are more or less similar to the rest of the southeast in general characteristics, Kidder said.

It is challenging to say anything with certainty about Watson Brake. Few archaeological excavations have been conducted at the site, and the full extent of the first earthworks is not yet known.

Watson Brake’s earthworks testify to the complexity of an ancient culture that remains largely a mystery.

Updated on September 22, 2023

Written by  Ellen Lloyd – AncientPages.com

Archaeologists excavating site Stöð on Stöðvarfjörður in East Iceland have found a small stone carved with a Viking Ship. This little find may be a big archaeological discovery as it seems this is the oldest picture ever found in Iceland.

The stone was discovered inside a longhouse that is believed to predate the permanent settlement of the island.

A small sandstone with a carved Viking ship may be the oldest picture ever found in Icleand. Credit: Facebook – The Landnámsskáli group in Stöð

“Bjarni F. Einarsson, the archaeologist leading the excavation, says that the stone was found in the wall of the older cabin. Such carvings of ships are quite common in the Nordic countries, carved in bone, wood, or stone. This is the first drawing of a ship that he knows of that has been found in Iceland and must be the oldest drawing in the country,” RÚV reports.

Archaeologists have been excavating at Stöð since 2015, and during this time, they have found a large number of intriguing artifacts and relics. In recent years, the focus has been on investigating the settlement-era longhouse.

“The longhouse is among the largest found in Iceland, 31.4m [103ft] long. In Scandinavia, only chieftains’ farms had longhouses larger than 28m [92ft]. It is also the richest longhouse ever excavated in Iceland. We have found 92 beads and 29 silver objects, including Roman and Middle Eastern coins,” Bjarni F. Einarsson told Iceland Review.

“What makes the site still more significant is that archaeologists discovered an even older longhouse underneath the settlement-era longhouse, estimated to date back to around 800 AD, some 75 years before the permanent settlement of Iceland. The most striking feature of the older structure is the conspicuous absence of the bones of domesticated animals,” the Icelandic Review reports.

One of the longhouses found at the site. Credit: Bjarni Einarsson

“My theory is that the older longhouse was a seasonal hunting camp, operated by a Norwegian chief who outfitted voyages to Iceland to gather valuables and bring them back across the sea to Norway,” Bjarni told Iceland Review. One of these valuables may have been walrus ivory: in 2019, DNA analyses and radiocarbon dating confirmed that Iceland was previously inhabited by a North Atlantic subspecies of walrus, now extinct.

An interesting subject is that Vikings often burned and buried their longhouses. 

Architecture takes on special importance as a collective expression of the organization and mindset of a culture, and people had a special relationship to their houses.

Marianne Hem Eriksen, a postdoc at the Department of Archaeology, Conservation, and History at the University of Oslo has studied the custom of how Vikings burned and buried their iron Age longhouses.

According to Eriksen, Vikings saw a link between the human body and the house. This suggested that the house borrowed many features from the human body. It’s very possible that Vikings believe the house had some kind of essence, some kind of soul, and this was the reason why they wanted to give their house a proper burial.

Of course, not all longhouses were buried or burned. The fact some survived gives archaeologists a better opportunity to find artifacts and relics.

A large area around Stöð has been investigated by archaeologists who found traces of unknown ancient structures and boat burial sites. Much about this Icelandic settlement is still unknown, but based on the discovery of beads, coins, and silver, it would seem this was a trading place where wealthy people met and lived. More excavations will provide answers about the settlement.

Written by Jan Bartek – AncientPages.com Staff Writer

Nothing could stop Johnny Appleseed from wandering the countryside, planting apple seeds in the 1800s. His dream was to produce so many apples that no one had to be hungry. This eccentric man, who was remarkable in many ways, is today remembered as a beloved American folk hero. He was the one who planted and supplied apple trees to much of the United States of America.

There are so many legends about Johnny Appleseed that it’s easy to forget who the real man was.

Johnny Appleseed Was A Real Historical Person

Johnny Appleseed, whose name was John Chapman from the beginning, was born in Leominster, Massachusetts, in 1774.

John started to travel alone in his twenties, and that’s how he spent most of his life. He was America’s first organic orchard man, and he was always welcomed by settlers and Native Americans, who treated him as a wandering shaman. He was well-known for his spirituality and pacifism, and he seemed to be as much at home with the red men of the forest as with his own race. John learned how to survive in the woods with few tools and food. There are many legends about his unusual physical prowess, toughness, and endurance.

Locals remember him as a person who could walk many miles on ice on bare feet in winter. One day a man gave Johnny Appleseed shoes because it was so cold.  The next day, he was walking barefoot again. When asked what happened to his shoes, he replied he had given them to someone in greater need than him.

Credit: bestapples.com

“He is reported to have lived one whole winter on “butternuts.” He is also said to have floated many miles down French Creek “on a cake of ice.” Paddling his canoe down the Allegheny River when there was much ice on the stream, he pulled his craft onto a block of ice, so the story goes, lay down inside the canoe and went to sleep. He was a hundred miles below his intended destination when he woke up.

The image of him sleeping in the canoe on the floating ice suggests his confidence and lack of hurry or concern about reaching his destination. He was at home and at ease with his wandering, dreamy and confident of his destiny,” Robert Morgan writes in the book Lions of the West.

Even during the War of 1812, conflict was fought between the United States, the United Kingdom, and their respective allies. John wandered across the country, carrying a leather bag filled with apple seeds. That’s how he got his nickname – the “apple seed man.” Later he became known as Johnny Appleseed. He often quoted Biblical scriptures and said God protected his mission and him. He was also a devoted follower of Emanuel Swedenborg.

He visited several settlements, and children, women, and men loved him. His appearance gave the impression that he was poor, but it’s not true. He did earn money by selling his apple trees, but he often preferred to trade food or clothing rather than collect money for his trees. To him, it was more important that a settler planted an apple tree than pay him for it.

Drawing of Jonathan Chapman, aka Johnny Appleseed. H. S. Knapp – A History of the Pioneer and Modern Times of Ashland County. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. (1862). Credit: Public Domain

He lived among many Indian tribes and learned their languages. He spent his time in nature and never killed any animals for survival. There was no need, he said, because nature provided him with the necessary food. He was famous for his ascetic diet, and he was only sick once in his life.

Johnny Appleseed died of pneumonia at the age of seventy. Different dates are listed for his death, but most likely, he passed away in  March 1845.

He had spent over 50 years walking across the United States planting apple trees. This remarkable man introduced apple trees to large parts of Pennsylvania, Ontario, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and the northern counties of present-day West Virginia. One can easily say that Johnny Appleseed had lived his dream.

Johnny Appleseed may be gone, but he is certainly not forgotten. According to Howard Means, author of Johnny Appleseed: The Man, the Myth, the American Story, “no American folk hero has been more widely and diversely celebrated than Johnny Appleseed.”

Many movies and books have been produced in honor of this exceptional man. Children love to hear about his adventures, and so do adults. He is an American legend and is celebrated as a national hero.

Written by Ellen Lloyd – AncientPages.com

Updated on November 18, 2023