Archaeologists recently made a highly significant discovery in Egypt. In a find some are describing as the most significant since the Tomb of Tutankhamen, a lost “Golden City” of Egypt has been found, with the potential to change our understanding of Egyptian history forever.
The recent discovery, found near Thebes in Egypt has been dubbed “The Rise of Aten” and dates back more than 3,000 years. This discovery is said to be the largest ancient municipality that has ever been discovered within the country.
The city has been hidden underneath the sands of Luxor’s western bank in the south of Egypt. This city dates to the rule of King Amenhotep III, from around 1391 to 1353 BC, according to the lead archaeologist, Zahi Hawass.
Amenhotep was the 9th king of the 18th dynasty, ruling over a peaceful, prosperous and wealthy land. His reign, free from war, saw the construction of many huge public buildings and temples.
A Chance Discovery
The Lost Golden City was not the prime discovery that the archaeologists had intended to make. Hawass and his other team members had initially visited the area in September 2020, in the hopes of finding a mortuary temple. But, instead of the expected religious buildings, a whole city began to emerge.
The location of the city on an early map of the area. The site is across the Nile from the great palace complex of Karnak (Description de l’Égypte / CC BY-SA 4.0)
The city was well organized, with an administrative area consisting of several large buildings with 10 foot (3 meter) brick walls, separate from that of the residential district. Further discoveries revealed a workshop area, where amulets, mud bricks, and other goods were made. The archaeologists also found other mercantile buildings, including a bakery.
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But the focus of the workshops was the construction and adornment of the huge temples, potentially including those in the large burial area was also discovered around the city outskirts. Much of this latter area, including the skeletal occupants of the graves, is still to be excavated.
But it is with the areas used by the living inhabitants of this city that there is the most potential. This discovery has the potential to give us a glimpse into how ancient Egyptians lived their lives, during a peaceful and wealthy time for Egypt.
The excavation began in September 2020, but the work is not yet over. Only the southern part of the newly-discovered city has been excavated or explored to date, with even the full extent of the city being unclear.
Treasures Beneath the Sands
Archaeologists had initially theorized that the site might have held a mortuary structure, where the subjects of Tutankhamun would have placed funerary items and food that they offered to him after he died in 1325 BC. But instead they discovered the zigzagging mudbrick walls and artifacts of a living city.
The structures around the city contained everyday items, including items used by artists, alongside more industrial finds. Evidence from the homes found around the city suggested that they housed workers. Everything pointed to this being the Pharaoh’s capital city.
The ruins form part of Akhenaten’s Malkata palace complex (Markh / Public Domain)
Evidence of glass and metal production was found, as well as a cemetery filled with rock tombs. Apart from human skeletons, unusually skeletons of cows or bulls have also been found within the city walls. Researchers are investigating why these livestock animals were found in this way.
But the crowning achievement of this archaeological expedition must be the discovery of 22 mummies, all royal, and with no fewer than 18 kings. These mummies included those of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, his wife, and are on display in the New National Museum of Egyptian Civilization.
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Some of the buildings bore the name of Amenhotep III’s son, Akhenaten. A controversial Pharaoh, Akhenaten abandoned the old Egyptian pantheon in favor of worshipping a single sun god. Akhenaten also abandoned many of the existing religious sites in Egypt, including apparently this newly-discovered city.
Abandoned and Forgotten
The researchers note that ancient Egypt’s loss is modern archaeology’s gain, as the decision to abandon the site has led to its preservation over the millennia. While Akhenaten’s new religion did not survive long beyond his death, his son Tutankhamun seemed to prefer not to return to The Rise Of Aten, instead building a new capital at Memphis.
Tutankhamun, and his Vizier Ay who succeeded him, seem to have continued to make some use of the site, but it was never the focus of Royal patronage as it was before Akhenaten’s sudden religious reforms. Analysis of the four settlement layers at the site suggests it was inhabited as late as the 7th century AD, before being abandoned to the sands altogether.
The greatest find since Tutankhamun’s tomb? (Mary Harrsch / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Not since the discovery of the nearby Tutankhamen’s tomb in 1922 has such a significant discovery been made. Hawass named this city “The Golden City” because it was built during the golden age of Egypt, and in the hopes of the archaeological treasures which might be found there.
Amenhotep III may well have been the wealthiest Pharaoh of all time, and this city was built during this peaceful period in Egypt’s history. Many answers, including how these people lived, and why the grandson of Amenhotep chose not to return, may await discovery.
Top Image: Amenhotep III and his sun temple at Luxor. Source: Inigolaitxu / Adobe Stock; Ángel M. Felicísimo / CC BY 2.0.
Adrian Carton de Wiart. Not many people know the name, but it belonged to one of the most battle-scarred soldiers in the history of the British Army. Carton de Wiart served in three different wars, and don’t think he got away unscathed. He suffered 11 injuries, and by the end of his military career was a one-eyed, one-handed war hero – and that’s just scratching the surface of his military career.
Adrian Carton de Wiart’s early years
On May 5, 1880, Adrian Carton de Wiart was born to an aristocratic family in Brussels, Belgium. Growing up relatively well-off, Carton de Wiart was sent to boarding school in England and eventually studyied law at Balliol College at Oxford University. Itching for something more, he dropped out and enrolled in the British Army.
Adrian Carton de Wiart, 1944. (Photo Credit: Cecil Beaton / National Portrait Gallery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
At the time, Carton de Wiart was underaged, not a British subject (he was of Belgian and Irish descent) and did not have his father’s consent. That didn’t stop him. Carton de Wiart, who was 20 years old, pretended to be 25 and signed up under the pseudonym “Trooper Carton.”
Service during the Second Boer War
In 1899, Adrian Carton de Wiart left for Africa with the Middlesex Yeomanry during the Second Boer War. While serving in South Africa with Paget’s Horse, the elite 19th Battalion Imperial Yeomanry, he received the first of nearly a dozen combat wounds. He was shot in the stomach and groin, and was forced to return to England to recover.
Lt. Col. Adrian Carton de Wiart during his World War I service. (Photo Credit: Henry Walter Barnett / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Carton de Wiart’s father was furious upon his return, but allowed him to remain in the army. Following another stint at Oxford, he was commissioned in the Second Imperial Light Horse, and later returned to South Africa, where he was given a regular commission as a second lieutenant with the 4th Dragoon Guards.
Adrian Carton de Wiart survived serious injuries during World War I
Despite his renewed service in South Africa, Adrian Carton de Wiart didn’t see frontline action again for over a decade. When the First World War broke out in 1914, Carton de Wiart was a British subject and quickly began serving with the Somaliland Camel Corps. While fighting off the Dervish State, he was hit by gunfire in the arm and face. The shot to his face took out his left eye and part of his ear.
Remembering the incident, military buddy and then-staff officer Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay said Carton de Wiart must have been in agony, and that the doctor had said there was nothing he could do to save the eye and that the injured soldier had to be kept with them until it was safe. Ismay recalled, “I honestly believe that he regarded the loss of an eye as a blessing as it allowed him to get out of Somaliland to Europe where he thought the real action was.”
Adrian Carton de Wiart sits for his portrait by artist Mollie Forestier-Walker, March 1950. (Photo Credit: Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
After returning to England, Carton de Wiart recovered and was given a glass eye. It was extremely uncomfortable, but he needed it to be declared medically cleared and fit for service. As soon as he was able, he threw the glass eye out of a taxi window and slung on his iconic eye patch.
Losing a hand on the Western Front
In 1915, Adrian Carton de Wiart was sent to the Western Front, where he participated in the Second Battle of Ypres. During the battle, the German Army launched an artillery barrage, which shattered Carton de Wiart’s left hand. When a doctor refused to amputate two dangling finger, the British officer ripped them off himself. Later that year, a surgeon amputated the entire hand.
Adrian Carton de Wiart during his service in World War I. (Photo Credit: H. Walter Barnett / National Portrait Gallery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Despite having lost both his left eye and hand, Carton de Wiart somehow managed to get medically cleared. In 1916, he was the commander of the 8th Battalion, Gloucestershire Regiment at the Battle of the Somme, where he received the Victoria Cross for his efforts. There, he inspired awe in his men as he pulled grenade pins with his teeth and hurled them at the enemy with his one good arm.
Carton de Wiart went on to fight additional battles in WWI, including the battles of Passchendaele, Cambrai and Arras, and experienced even more injuries. Following the conflict, he spent time living in Poland as second-in-command of the British-Polish Military Mission.
Adrian Carton de Wiart was a prisoner of war during World War II
When World War II began, Adrian Carton de Wiart continued his service. After providing military advice in Poland, he led a campaign in Norway and was stationed in Northern Ireland with the 61st Division. He was dispatched to Yugoslavia in 1941. On his way there, his plane was shot down over the Mediterranean. He survived the crash, swam ashore and was taken prisoner by the Italians.
At this point, Carton de Wiart was 60 years old, but that didn’t stop him from trying to escape. He and three other prisoners – Richard O’Connor, Thomas Ranfurly and Philip Neame – were committed to escaping, and Carton de Wiart made five attempts. He escaped through a tunnel he’d dug for seven months and spent 18 days disguised as an Italian peasant before he was captured and taken to Rome.
Maj. Gen. Adrian Carton de Wiart standing with Brig. John Combe, Maj. Gen. Michael Gambier-Parry and Brig. Edward Todhunter, 1941. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
Carton de Wiart was then brought to Lisbon and his release was negotiated. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill then had him sent to China to become the Government’s Military Representative to General Chiang Kai-Shek. He held this position until 1946, during which time he toured the Burma Front.
In October 1947, Carton de Wiart officially retired from the British Army, having been given the honorary rank of lieutenant general. During his service, he’d suffered injuries to his face, stomach, left eye, ear, hip, ankle, head and leg, and along with the Victoria Cross was presented with the Croix de guerre, the Polish Cross of Valour and the British War Medal, among other decorations.
A peaceful end to an exciting life
In contrast to the gruesome injuries he experienced in battle and the toll they took on his body, Adrian Carton de Wiart lived a peaceful life following his retirement. He wrote an autobiography, titled Happy Odyssey: The Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Sir Adrian Carton de Wiart, that Churchill wrote the foreword for. Surprisingly, his earning of the Victoria Cross wasn’t mentioned.
Adrian Carton de Wiart with the British Joint Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Gerald Isaacs, April 1951. (Photo Credit: Keystone / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)After years of service, Carton de Wiart settled in County Cork, Ireland and died peacefully at home in June 1963, at the age of 83. He and his second wife, Joan, are buried in Caum Churchyard.
Russia during the first half of the 20th century was both massive and constantly engaged in military conflict. One man who made a name for himself during the fighting was Konstantin Rokossovsky, who by the end of his military career was made the marshal of two different country’s armies.
Konstantin Rokossovsky’s early life and entry into the military
Konstantin Rokossovsky was born in Warsaw, Poland on December 21, 1896. At the time, the country was part of the Russian Empire. He grew up relatively well off, as his family were members of the Polish nobility and his father worked as an inspector for the Warsaw Railways. Unfortunately, both he and Rokossovsky’s mother had both passed by the time he was 14 years old.
Konstantin Rokossovsky, then-Marshal of the Soviet Union, 1945 (Photo Credit: Sovfoto / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
As a youth, he trained as a stonemason. When the First World War began, Rokossovsky enlisted with the Russian Imperial Army and was assigned to the 5th Kargopol Dragoon Regiment as a cavalry soldier, falling in line with previous generations of his family.
It didn’t take long for him to distinguish himself as a talented soldier, and he ended the conflict having reached the rank of junior non-commissioned officer.
Distinguishing himself during the Russian Civil War
Toward the end of World War I, Russia became embroiled in a civil war. Rokossovsky, like many other Russians, kept on fighting. He joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and became a member of the Red Army. During the conflict, he regularly commanded calvaries, and was wounded in the shoulder while fighting campaigns against Aleksandr Kolchak‘s White Guard armies in 1919.
He later received the Order of the Red Banner, the highest honor presented by the Russian Army at the time.
Men were drafted to fight with the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. (Photo Credit: Slava Katamidze Collection / Getty Images)
In 1921, Rokossovsky wound up in Mongolia, aiding the Mongolian People’s Republic in repeling Hungarian Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, who believed he was the reincarnation of Genghis Khan. The mission was successful, and the Mongolian and Russian forces were able to capture the country’s capital.
Konstantin Rokossovsky is arrested and accused of being a traitor
Despite his long and distinguished military career, Konstantin Rokossovsky could not avoid being swept up in Joseph Stalin‘s Great Purge. He was arrested and accused of being a traitor and a spy, with Stalin using his Polish background and past associations as evidence.
While in prison, Rokossovsky refused to sign a statement admitting to his “crimes.” This led to regular beatings and mock shooting ceremonies. Following his trial, he was sent to Kresty Prison in Leningrad, where he remained until March 1940.
Joseph Stalin put Konstantin Rokossovsky in prison in the late 1930s. The distinguished military man was accused of being a traitor and spy. (Photo Credit: Laski Diffusion / Getty Images)
His grandson, Col. Konstantin Rokossovsky Vilevich, later explained:
“The evidence was based on the testimony of Adolph Yushkevich, a colleague of my grandfather in the Civil War. But my grandfather knew very well that Yushkevich died in Perekop. He said that he would sign [a confession] if Adolph was brought for a confrontation. They looked for Yushkevich and found that he had died long before.”
The Russians needed his expertise
When the Germans invaded Russia during the Second World War, Konstantin Rokossovky, then out of prison, joined what Russia called “The Great Patriotic War.” He put his past accusations as a spy and traitor behind him and rose through the ranks of the Red Army. His fingerprints were all over some of the biggest battles of the conflict, including the battles of Brody, Smolensk and Moscow.
Konstantin Rokossovsky wearing his full military uniform, 1949. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)
Rokossovsky was involved in the planning of Operation Bagration and repeatedly butted heads with Stalin over strategy. Stalin wanted to keep the Soviet practice of breaking through the German line from a singular place, while Rokossovsky argued for a two-point breakthrough. In the end, Stalin went with Rokossovky’s plan and Russia won a crushing victory.
Thanks to this success, Rokossovsky was named the Marshal of the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Order of the Bath in 1945 and later named the Commanding Officer of the Victory Parade in Moscow.
Konstantin Rokossovsky’s later military career and retirement
In 1949, Stalin paid Konstantin Rokossovsky back by making him the Marshal of Poland, as well as the Polish Minister of Defense. While he worked hard in this post, securing commanding positions for thousands of Soviet officers within the Polish military, Rokossovsky never really felt at home. He once explained, “In Russia, they say I’m a Pole, in Poland they call me Russian.”
Rokossovsky played a heavy role in the Sovietization of Poland.
Konstantin Rokossovsky sporting his litany of medals. (Photo Credit: Getty Images)
Rokossovsky officially resigned from the military in 1962, four years after being named the chief inspector of the Ministry of Defence, and spent much of his retirement hunting. He passed away in 1968, at the age of 71, and his ashes were placed at the Kremlin Wall Necropolis on Red Square.
When the RMS Olympic was launched in October 1910, she was the largest man-made moving object in the world. At 882 feet long, Olympic set the standard for White Star Line’s Olympic-class ocean liners, and not only changed the luxury liner industry, but also had an impact on the First World War.
The RMS Olympic was laid down as a luxury liner
The RMS Olympic was the first of three Olympic-class ocean liners commissioned by White Star Line, a British shipping company. Completed in May 1911, she was later joined by the HMHS Britannic and the RMS Titanic. When the Titanic was completed the following year, several adjustments to the original design put her at 1,000 tons heavier than Olympic, making her the largest ship in the world.
While most of the world knows the tragic fate of the Titanic, the history of her sister ship Olympic is just as violent.
Olympic set sail on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England to New York City in June 1911. Captained by Edward Smith, she successfully reached her destination. The sheer size and grandeur of the luxury liner attracted global attention, so much so that 8,000 visitors toured the vessel when she was opened to the public while docked in New York.
RMS Olympic‘s collision and the sinking of the RMS Titanic
While the RMS Olympic‘s first four voyages went according to plan, the fifth was when tragedy first struck the luxury liner. On September 20, 1911, Olympic collided with HMS Hawke, an Edgar-class British cruiser, in the Solent strait. Hawke‘s bow, which was designed to ram into enemy ships, collided with Olympic near her stern, tearing two large holes into her hull.
Even though the damage flooded two of Olympic‘s watertight compartments, she was able to return to port at Southhampton without a single serious injury onboard. Hawke almost sank, but was repaired and returned to service. She was sunk by a German U-boat in 1914.
Hole torn in the hull of the RMS Olympic after her collision with the HMS Hawke in the Solent strait, September 20, 1911. (Photo Credit: Kirk and Sons of Cowes / Heritage Images / Getty Images)
Olympic was returning to Southampton from New York City on April 14, 1912 when the ship’s wireless operator, Ernest James Moore, received a distress call from the Titanic. The sinking ship was 500 nautical miles away, but the crew of Olympic leaped into action and set a new course toward the vessel to rescue passengers.
One hundred nautical miles away from her destination, Olympic received a message from the RMS Carpathia, which had arrived at the scene first. Arthur Henry Roston, Carpathia‘s captain, informed Olympic that the Titanic had sunk around 2:20 AM, and under the orders of White Star Line’s Bruce Ismay, Olympic was advised not to take on survivors from the Carpathia. He believed they would feel distressed being on a ship that was identical to the Titanic.
The RMS Titanic and RMS Olympic seen together for the last time, February 3, 1912. (Photo Credit: Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Not only was Olympic identical to the Titanic in design, she also carried the same amount of lifeboats – a number too low to save everyone onboard. This resulted in a mutiny among the vessel’s 280 firemen, who went on strike until an additional 40 collapsible lifeboats were added to the ship.
White Star Line resigned Olympic six months after the Titanic tragedy and refitted her with new safety precautions. This included increasing the number of lifeboats and reinforcing the hull with additional lining. The bulkheads were also extended to the B-deck level, a critical change, considering how easily they flooded over during the sinking of the Titanic.
The new and improved Olympic was returned to service in March 1913, just as World War I drew near.
Rescue of the HMS Audacious (1912)
At the start of WWI, the RMS Olympic continued commercial voyages across the Atlantic Ocean. Her final one left New York City for Glasgow, Scotland on October 21, 1914, with just 153 passengers onboard. Six days into the journey, the crew received distress signals from a nearby battleship, the HMS Audacious (1912). Audacious had struck a German sea mine off the coast of Ireland and was at risk of sinking.
The sinking of the HMS Audacious (1912), October 1914. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror Archive / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)
Olympic saved 250 crew members from the sinking ship. The luxury liner attempted to tow the Audacious, but the cable connecting her to Olympic broke three times. Instead of towing the ship, Olympic took on the remaining crew members who looked on as an explosion rang out and the Audacious finally sank.
From luxury liner to hero troopship
The RMS Olympic was requisitioned as a troopship in 1915, becoming the HMT Olympic. Her large size and already established living quarters made her perfect for transporting troops to Europe. She was stripped of her luxury finishings, decorated in dazzle camouflage and armed with 12-pound cannons and 4.7-inch naval artillery guns.
The HMT Olympic in dazzle camouflage after her service as a troopship in World War I, 1919. (Photo Credit: Pictures from History / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Olympic set sail for Greece from Liverpool in September 1915, carrying 6,000 British troops headed to the Gallipoli Campaign. In May 1918, Olympic went above and beyond her station when her crew members spotted a German U-boat while traveling through the English Channel. As SM U-103 attempted to torpedo the troopship, Olympic sprung into action and rammed into the enemy vessel, successfully sinking the U-boat.
By the end of the war, Olympic had earned the nickname “Old Reliable.” She’d traveled over 180,000 miles and carried more than 200,000 soldiers between 1915-19.
HMT Olympic‘s fate
Following the war, the HMT Olympic was refitted into her former glory as a commercial passenger vessel. She operated from 1920-35 until her retirement, which was likely due to a fatal collision with the Nantucket lightship (LV-117), not far from New York in May 1934. After failing to see the smaller lightship in the water, Olympic couldn’t turn in time to avoid slicing through the vessel. Seven crew members were killed in the incident.
The RMS Olympic in White Star dock 44, Southampton, 1933. (Photo Credit: English Heritage / Heritage Images / Getty Images)
In 1934, White Star Line merged with Cunard Line to form Cunard Star. While the company contemplated keeping Olympic in service, it was later decided to retire the vessel. After 257 round-trips across the Atlantic, she was sold and scrapped between 1935-37.
The US military has a long and complicated history when it comes to the treatment of minorities within its ranks. While things have certainly improved, it’s important to remember the struggles many faced while fighting for their country. This is especially true of African-Americans during the First World War.
War History Online was lucky enough to speak with US Lt. Gen. Larry R. Jordan about this and his own 35-year career within the US Army. His insight was invaluable and adds a lot of weight to what should be an ongoing conversation.
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s education and entry into the US military
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan was born on February 7, 1946, in Kansas City, Missouri. While attending Central High School, from which he graduated in 1964, he was a member of the Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC), which was a mandatory requirement for males at the majority of Kansas City’s public high schools. JROTC sparked Jordan’s interest in the US military, as did studying history, and he made the decision to apply for the US Military Academy West Point.
“By the time I began to apply for colleges, I was interested in the Military Academy and applied,” Jordan told War History Online. “[I] really wasn’t interested in the Navy or the Marine Corps. I did think about the Air Force, but, as it turned out, I ended up going to West Point, the oldest of the academies, and really enjoyed my time there.”
Lt. Gen. Larry R. Jordan. (Photo Credit: Mr. Scott Davis / U.S. Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
According to Jordan, West Point provided him with the foundation needed to succeed in his career in the Army. After graduating in 1968 with a Bachelor’s Degree in engineering, he was commissioned into the Army as an armored officer, and later earned his Master’s Degree in history at Indiana University Bloomington. That wasn’t the end of his education, however, as he dedicated his time to learn a number of different disciplines.
While with the military, Jordan also attended the National War College at the National Defense University, the US Army Armor School, the US Marine Corps Amphibious Warfare School (now the Expeditionary Warfare School), the US Army Ranger and Airborne School, and the US Army Command and Staff College (CGSC). He also completed the National and International Security Management program at Harvard University in 1992.
US Army cadets make their way through campus at the US Military Academy West Point, March 30, 2007. (Photo Credit: DON EMMERT / AFP / Getty Images)
“I learned a lot about myself [at West Point],” he shared. “I learned a lot about how people react to various situations and stresses. You learn that in a lot of schools – particularly Ranger School – you learn that about yourself. You learn how much you can endure and still function. You learn how people react when they’re tired, hungry, concerned, frightened, and how you have to attempt to lead them.”
Serving with the “Big Red One” in Vietnam
Throughout his 35 years of service within the US Armed Forces, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan fought in a number of conflicts and was stationed in a number of countries. From 1969 to 1970, he served a combat tour in Vietnam with the 1st Infantry Division – the “Big Red One” – which is the oldest continuously serving division within the Regular Army. It was founded in May 1917 and is headquartered at Fort Riley, Kansas.
Soldiers with the 1st Infantry Division dash through an area devastated by B-52 Stratofortress bombers, toward the scene of a brief battle with Viet Cong forces. Troops of the “Big Red One” came under fire as they moved through the area following the air raid. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
During the Vietnam War, he was assigned as a platoon leader, along with two others who attended West Point with him. In 1969, the US government had conducted draft lotteries and, as a result, many of those serving overseas hadn’t volunteered to serve and “wanted to get on with their jobs. They wanted to get past that and move on.”
Despite the many men who had been drafted, Jordan didn’t see a decrease in troop morale, and he himself knew his mission was to “go after the enemy, but at the same time bring Americans home alive and well.”
The 1st Infantry Division’s area of operations in Vietnam included French-owned rubber plantations around Saigon. (Photo Credit: Nik Wheeler / Getty Images)
Vietnam was the first American-involved war where White and African-American troops weren’t segregated. While racism and informal segregation did occur in some combat units and even during the recruiting process, Jordan shared he himself didn’t experience any discrimination because of the color of his skin.
“I never faced any official discrimination,” he said. “The Army by that time had some pretty stringent rules against discrimination. They wanted to treat all soldiers equally because they wanted to keep morale up – if you want unit cohesion, you’ve got to have that. Of course, you run into individuals whose personal prejudices and biases just come to the surface, and if you confront those in a professional way…”
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s service in Operation Desert Storm
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan also served his country during Operation Desert Storm. He was fighting with an all-volunteer force, as opposed to the largely draft Army he’d fought alongside in Vietnam. As well, the Army was quite a bit more capable by 1991, “because we had made great progress in technology, our equipment – even our training methodologies were better.”
All in all, he found Desert Storm and the US military’s success in the Gulf War to be a “fantastic operation.”
An American M1A1 Abrams tank crossing the desert during the Gulf War, 1991. (Photo Credit: Allan Tannenbaum / Getty Images)
When asked to compare the difference between both Vietnam and Desert Storm, Jordan said it came down to his rank at the time and the different perspectives that came along with that.
“In Vietnam, I was there with about 35 soldiers and a platoon, and out there on the ground and moving through the bamboo or the jungle or the sawgrass,” he explained. “In Desert Storm, I was a major general and I was certainly in harm’s way, but I had different concerns and worries, and those concerns were, ‘Are we doing the right thing for our units? Are we going to get units in trouble? Can we supply them? Can we provide them with the support they need?’”
Additional service in the US Army and retirement
Outside of Vietnam and Operation Desert Storm, Larry Jordan served three different tours in Europe, including as the deputy commanding general of the US Army and the 7th Army in Germany. He also conducted three tours at the Pentagon, as well as assignments in Israel and the Middle East.
US Army soldiers in the US Army Ranger Course. Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan completed the course during his career in the US military. (Photo Credit: Sgt. Paul Sale / Office of the Chief of Public Affairs / DVIDS / Public Domain)
While on duty in the United States, he held many prominent positions, including the commanding general of the US Army Armor School, the Deputy Inspector General of the US Army, and the Inspector General of the US Army, the latter of which allowed him to work closely with the Secretary and Chief of Staff of the Army. On top of all this, he also served as an assistant professor at West Point for three years.
Jordan’s last assignment prior to his retirement was as the deputy commanding general of the US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) headquarters at Fort Eustis, Virginia (now Joint Base Langley-Eustis) from 2001-03. At the time of his retirement from the Army, he’d left a legacy that included the Distinguished Service Medal, the Silver Star, the Legion of Merit, and the Bronze Star, among a number of other decorations.
While he finds these awards rewarding, he tries “to give credit to the people [who] were working with me and for me, because without their support and their hard efforts, we wouldn’t accomplish anything. It’s nice to be recognized by your service and by the nation, but it’s more important to me personally to be recognized as having taken care of people.”
Roosevelt Hall at the National War College. Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan attended the National War College during his military career. (Photo Credit: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Following his retirement, Jordan became the senior vice president of Burdeshaw Associates, a business consulting agency, and is currently the Principal of LNJ Group, LLC. He’s also a member of the Council of Trustees of the Association of the US Army, the Board of Directors of the National Urban Fellows and the Board of Directors of the Army Historical Foundation.
When asked what he’d like his legacy to be, he responded, “I tell folks that the only legacy that any of us can leave in the Army or any of the services is in terms of the people and places we touch. We touch them for the better or the worse. I hope I touched both for the better.”
African-Americans enlist to serve in World War I
For Memorial Day 2022, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan is speaking at the National WWI Museum and Memorial, in recognition of its “Black Citizenship in the Age of Jim Crow” exhibit. While he wants to recognize all Americans who served during World War I, he wants those in attendance to remember the causes for which they fought: “liberty, justice, freedom [and] democracy.”
African-American troops, 1917. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Before one can truly understand the depth of Jordan’s words, an understanding of the service of the nation’s African-American population must first be discussed. Over the course of WWI, around 200,000 African-Americans served the country, with 100,000 of those men being sent to Europe. Of that total, only 41,000 were assigned to combat roles. The rest were assigned to segregated labor battalions and made to perform menial tasks.
When the US officially joined the war in 1917, the country only had four all-Black regiments: the 24th and 25th infantry and the 9th and 10th cavalry. At that time, over 20,000 African-Americans enlisted with the military, a number which increased following the enacting of the Selective Service Act, which required all males between the ages of 21-31 to register for the draft.
Sadly, they were barred from joining the US Marines Corps and thus were only able to obtain positions with the US Navy and Coast Guard. Even though they were allowed to join the Army, they were banned from serving with its aviation units.
African-American soldier saluting the American flag, 1917. (Photo Credit: GHI / Universal History Archive / Getty Images)
Once enlisted, African-American trainees were subjected to the same racist and discriminatory behaviors as they had been while civilians; Jim Crow attitudes and laws had followed them into the military. Segregated transportation drove them to segregated military bases and training facilities. While protests occurred, little was done to rectify the situation, with the Department of War unwilling to “undertake at this time to settle the so-called race question.”
African-American units are deployed to Europe
African-American units provided much-needed support to America’s allies in Europe. The first units to arrive in France were laborers, engineers and stevedores, with the 369th Infantry Regiment, a combat regiment consisting of Black troops, arriving soon after. They were known by a number of nicknames, including the “Men of Bronze” and the “Black Rattlers.”
The German Army gave them their best-known moniker: the “Hell Fighters” or “Harlem Hellfighters.” This was because they “never lost a man through capture, lost a trench or a foot of ground to the enemy.”
The arrival of the 369th Infantry Regiment – nicknamed the “Harlem Hellfighters” – in New York after World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)
The 369th served the longest of any regiment in a foreign army during WWI, and they were the first to reach the Rhine River. They saw a lot of action during their 191-day deployment, including at the Second Battle of the Marne. They were treated equally by their White counterparts in the French Army, a stark contrast to how White American troops viewed them and their service.
The 370th Infantry Regiment, 93rd Infantry Division, nicknamed the “Black Devils” for the fierceness of their fighting force, was another African-American unit assigned to the French Army. What made the 370th so notable was that it was the only one commanded by Black officers. The regiment’s troops fought with distinction in both Belgium and France, participating in the Oise-Aisne Offensive, among other engagements.
Officers with the 370th Infantry Regiment. (Photo Credit: U.S. Army)
Of note are the 104 African-American doctors who volunteered to serve in the country’s all-Black units. They began their training in August 1917, learning about medical and sanitation procedures in combat zones. While 118 doctors attended this training at the segregated Medical Officers Training Camp at Fort Des Moines, Iowa, only 104 graduated. They left for France in May 1918.
Attitudes didn’t change after the armistice
By the time the armistice with Germany was signed on November 11, 1918, African-Americans had served in a number of units and roles. They’d used the war to show their patriotism and that they could contribute to the defense of the country, something that was encouraged by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
Squadron A, 351st Field Artillery return home on the Transport Louisville, February 17, 1919. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
Upon their return home, Black servicemen expected greater equality. What they faced, however, was more persecution. Talk of the contributions African-Americans had made to the war effort was deemed to be lies, and many veterans were threatened with death if they went out in public in their military uniforms.
Many were physically attacked during a number of race riots that broke out in the middle of 1919. Dubbed the “Red Summer” by author and civil rights leader James Weldon Johnson, these violent clashes broke out in a number of American cities, including Chicago, Virginia, and Washington, DC.
Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan’s thoughts on how African-Americans were treated
Following WWI, America’s Black population continued to suffer under racist ideologies. While he hates to speculate, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan feels the country may have moved away from such activity had different policies been in place, in regard to military service. He also feels the same can be said about state and community laws.
“It would be very difficult to philosophically support those [laws] if your nation said, ‘Hey, all these individuals have fought for the nation, they have contributed and supported our effort. We are treating them equally and fairly.’ It’s very difficult, then, for you to argue, whether in state courts or local courts or wherever, that it’s alright, that we can prohibit interracial marriage, we can prohibit other things.
“I mean, I could guess that those things might have been different, but I don’t know, because it took a long time to move,” he added.
African-American infantry troops marching northwest of Verdun, France. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Getty Images)
He also adds that the treatment of African-Americans created resolve within the community, saying, “There was disappointment, but there was also resolve, and I tell folks that out of that experience grew what was to become what I call the ‘Double V’ campaign – World War II. A lot of African-Americans said, ‘We have two things – victories – to achieve: victory overseas and victory at home.’
“That energized part of the early Civil Rights Movement and, of course, I think it was July 26th of ’48 [that] President Truman signed the executive order desegregating the Armed Forces, and from then on there’s been steady progress. In many ways, I think the Armed Forces – the Army, in particular – has led the way in that. Not only for African-Americans and other minorities but for women and others.
“So, I think it was an important step along the way,” he continued. “It was a disappointment for many, but it helped the nation face the hypocrisy.”
How is equality presented in the US military today?
When asked what the Armed Forces can do to continue to promote equality within its ranks, Lt. Gen. Larry Jordan looks back on his own experiences. As the Inspector General of the Army, he “got a chance to look at the good, the bad, the ugly, and, quite frankly, of all the things I saw, about 95 percent were great. People doing the right things – trying to do the right things.” That’s not to say, however, that people didn’t sometimes “stumble and fall.”
African-American soldiers in France, 1918. (Photo Credit: adoc-photos / Getty Images)
He feels the military is doing the right things and making steps in the right direction but adds that the services need to continue to stress the importance of servicemen and commanders doing what they’re supposed to, which can sometimes be hard, given all they have to contend with.
“The problem is all services have a lot on their plate,” he explained, “and I’ve seen a number of times when the Army will solve a problem and it’ll put it aside and say, ‘Solved that problem. Let’s move to the next challenge.’ And left by itself, because all of the services are made of humans, imperfect humans, those things can get out of order, they can go awry if you don’t keep your eye on them. So you occasionally have things that flare-up.”
The 301st Stevedore Regiment, 23rd Engineers in France during World War I. (Photo Credit: CORBIS / Getty Images)
To conclude, Jordan spoke about the progress the Army has made since he enlisted in the 1960s.
“I can’t point a finger at the Army and say that institution discriminated against me because it gave me some opportunities that, otherwise, I wouldn’t have had. Same way with the Academy. Not a perfect place, much better today. In fact, [it] became much better when we let women in – I was only faculty then – because we have a diverse Army that has women in it, and you need that leadership. You need that exposure. You need that perspective and insight.
“We made progress. Sometimes not as quick as we’d like.”
Deception and military subterfuge have been used throughout history. The aim is to give armies the upper hand by tricking the enemy. The practice dates back to the beginning of time and has seen a lot of success. The following are just some of the best and most famous examples of these techniques in action.
Operation Uranus
In the 1930s, Germany and Russia were both significant military powers. In 1941, the German Army invaded Russia. While the Germans made progress along the Eastern Front, they were unprepared for the cold weather, which hindered their success. As well, the forces stationed in Russia were beginning to be stretched thin, meaning they needed to supplement their strength with armies from other Axis powers.
A Russian soldier jumps from a tank during the Battle of Stalingrad. (Photo Credit: Getty Images)
About halfway through the Battle of Stalingrad, from November 19-23, 1942, the Red Army conducted Operation Uranus. The aim was to “show” the Germans that Russia was in terror and mounting its last defense.
Despite their struggles, the Germans still had an air of confidence to them on the Eastern Front. To further grow this and lull them into a false sense of security, the Russians dug fake trenches and deliberately lost skirmishes. They then sent in the full might of their army, resulting in the encirclement of not only the German Sixth Army, but the Third and Fourth Romanian armies and part of the German Fourth Panzer Army.
Q-Ships and the British Royal Navy
During the First World War, German U-boats terrorized the seas. British forces had trouble matching their firepower in one-on-one matchups, so, instead, the British Royal Navy decided to use deception.
The British began arming merchant ships, dubbed “Q-Ships,” with concealed weapons. The common practice for the U-boats was to approach ships and allow passengers to leave on lifeboats before sinking the vessels. As well, since torpedoes were expensive, the Germans often chose to rise to the water’s surface and sink ships with shells.
The HMS Tamarisk (1916) was the first British vessel to be used as a Q-Ship. (Photo Credit: UK Government / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Royal Navy lured U-boats close to shore with their Q-Ships. Once the Germans were close, their artillery would come out and the British would attack at close range. Due to the success of this practice in the 1910s, Q-Ships were used by both the Allied and Axis powers during World War II.
D-Day deceptions
Over the course of WWII, the Allies slowly turned the tide. In order to win the war, they needed to make their way into Germany, and they planned to do so by first landing on – and securing – France. However, the numbers in the Germany Army were still strong and, as such, the Allies needed to make use of subterfuge. One way of accomplishing this was through the use of dummy tanks.
Gen. George Patton, commander of the US Third Army, 1945. (Photo Credit: Galerie Bilderwelt / Getty Images)
In addition, the US forces also had fake parachute jumps and even created a fake Army under the command of Gen. George Patton. Dubbed the First United States Army Group (FUSAG), it was created for Operation Quicksilver, which was a part the larger Operation Bodyguard.
The aim was to convince Germany that the FUSAG was planning an invasion of Calais. To make the deception more realistic, the Allied forces created fuel depots, barracks, tents and ammo dumps. They also made use of double agents, who would present the German high command with false reports about the movements of the FUSAG.
US Troops wading through water after reaching Normandy and landing on Omaha Beach on D-Day, 1944. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
The diversion was successful, and D-Day wound up being the turning point of the conflict.
The Trojan Horse
The best-known story of military deception is also the oldest. The tale is laid out in the Aeneid, written by Virgil between 19-29 BC. In the story, the Greeks had tried to lay siege to Troy for more than 10 years, but their attempts had been fruitless. That changed when they began to utilize deception.
A Trojan Horse statue in Turkey, where Troy would have stood. (Photo Credit: Fredrik Posse / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In the Aeneid, the Greeks led the Trojans to believe they were giving up on their battle plans, and those in Troy thought the Greeks were leaving the area via the sea. To commemorate the conflict, the Greeks had sent a massive wooden horse. It was then brought in through the Trojan gates. At this point, the Greeks, including Odysseus, came out of the false horse and laid waste to the Trojan Army.
Quaker guns
The American Civil War also saw many instances of subterfuge. One of the most effective methods was the use of “Quaker guns,” false weapons dating back to the 1700s. The Quakers, a religious sect, were pacifists, and the name is used to denote the fact that, while the guns may have resembled real cannons, they were, in fact, just painted pieces of wood.
An example of an American Civil War-era Quaker gun. (Photo Credit: The Photograph History of the Civil War / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
During the Civil War, the Confederate Army used Quaker guns to make up for their shortage of artillery. They were positioned in fortifications and used to delay Union assaults. A prime example of their use was when Confederate Gen. Joseph E. Johnston effectively used the fake cannons to draw Union soldiers in and allow his men to escape along the Rappahannock River.
Ghost Army
Some of the most interesting deception tactics of the Second World War were the result of the Ghost Army. Comprised of artists, photographers, sound engineers and architects, their goal was to trick the German Army into believing the Allies were stationed in areas where they weren’t.
Inflatable tank, modeled after the M4 Sherman. (Photo Credit: United States Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
To accomplish this, members of the 603rd Camouflage Engineers used rubber tanks and dummy planes. The fake tanks were often placed alongside real ones, but were given less-than-acceptable camouflage, so that the entire convoy was less likely to be targeted. Other visual deceptions included dressing up as other infantrymen and driving around in looping convoys, to give the appearance that an entire unit was on the move.
The Ghost Army also made use of sonic deception, with the help of the 3132 Signal Service Company. To do this, they recorded military sounds and noises, such as those made by tanks, infantrymen and artillery units. They also created “spoof radio,” where actors impersonated operators from real units.
The story of Aníbal Augustus Milhais, also known by the nickname Soldado Milhões (“Soldier Millions”), reads like something out of Star Wars. A simple farmer is called to serve his country during the First World War, and he shows unparalleled bravery, despite the harshest of conditions. After becoming a national hero, he returns to living what many would view as a simple life.
This is Milhais’ story.
Aníbal Augustus Milhais’ upbringing and the start of World War I
Born in 1895, Aníbal Augustus Milhais was a farmer from the Portuguese town of Valongo de Milhais. In 1915, not long after the First World War broke out, he was drafted into the Portuguese military as part of the Infantry of Bragança. He later became a member of the Trás os Montes Brigade of the 2nd Infantry Division of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps.
German soldiers sitting in a trench during a battle in Flanders, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Paul Thompson / FPG / Getty Images)
During the First World War, the Portuguese military spent the majority if its time participating in raids in Flanders, Belgium. These raids against German troops were extremely dangerous, with high casualty rates on both sides. Milhais’ group was often assigned to serve on the frontlines during battle, meaning Milhais had the most dangerous job in an already extremely dangerous war. Soldiers serving on the frontlines were often beset with extreme fatigue.
The Battles of the Lys
On April 9, 1918, Aníbal Augustus Milhais took part in the Battle of the Lys. During the battle, he was placed in charge of a Lewis gun, a light machine gun capable of firing a large number of rounds. The fighting went poorly, causing the Portuguese and allied Scottish troops to retreat.
Milhais was charged with laying down suppressive fire to protect the retreating troops from the Germans. While under heavy attack, he managed to kill a large amount of enemy soldiers, allowing many of his comrades to escape. Milhais stayed at his post until he ran out of ammunition and found he was all alone. He covered himself under a tarp and evaded capture as the German Army passed him by.
The ordeal was not over yet
Just because Aníbal Augustus Milhais was not captured or killed by the Germans did not mean his ordeal was over. He was all alone, with no idea where his fellow soldiers were. Still armed with his Lewis gun, Milhais made a three-day trek through Flanders. Along the way, he rescued a Scottish major who became his walking companion, and they eventually reached their comrades.
Painting depicting Aníbal Augusto Milhais firing his Lewis gun. (Photo Credit: Joseolgon / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)
Amazingly, Milhais again proved his valor. Just months after the Battle of the Lys, he single-handedly laid down suppressive fire that allowed a Belgian unit to make it to a secondary trench without any fatalities.
Aníbal Augustus Milhais is rewarded for his actions
Aníbal Augustus Milhais’ actions were noticed by both British and Belgian officers, who noted his heroism in their reports. He was honored by Portuguese Major Ferreira de Amaral, who memorably stated that he was worth “one million soldiers.” For his service, he was given the Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword, of Valour, Loyalty and Merit, Portugal’s highest honor. He remains the only soldier to have received the medal on the battlefield, as opposed to during a public ceremony in Lisbon.
Anibal Milhais’ Lewis gun on display at the Museu Militar do Porto. (Photo Credit: Joseolgon / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)
That wasn’t Milhais’ only award. France gave him the Légion d’Honneur, in front of 15,000 Allied soldiers. When he returned to Portugal, Milhais was seen as a national hero and one of the most famous people in the country.
Aníbal Augustus Milhais’ later life
After his time in the war, Aníbal Augustus Milhais returned to his village and had nine children with his wife, Teresa. Life was hard for the couple, as the Portuguese economy was severely damaged by the war, and they appealed to the government for support. Rather than supporting him monetarily, the government named his hometown, Valongo de Milhais, in his honor.
Aníbal Augustus Milhais. (Photo Credit: J. Fernandes / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The couple’s financial situation became so dire that, eventually, Milhais emigrated to Brazil to seek a better life. Once people in the country’s Portuguese community realized how dire his situation had become, they collected money to send him home and support him.
Eventually, the embarrassed Portuguese government gave their most famous soldier a pension to live on. Milhais lived out the remainder of his years in a simple fashion, and died on June 3, 1970 at the age of 74.
As World War I dragged on, an unexpected group became known for being ruthless. Canadians, stereotyped as friendly, kind and agreeable, certainly displayed none of these characteristics when it came to taking on their enemies. While they didn’t arrive on the Western Front until 1915, they quickly made a name for themselves as fierce opponents, despite their lack of experience. Canadian soldiers were known their bravery, and they were viewed by the Germans as a tough group to contend with.
Canadian involvement in World War I
Canadians gathered outside of Toronto City Hall during a military recruitment campaign, 1915. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)
When the First World War broke out, Canada entered the fight as a dominion of Britain. Unlike many of its allies, however, the country had a very small standing army, meaning officials needed to rapidly fill their ranks. They did so with little-to-no difficulty, as Canadians from all over the country enthusiastically signed up to fight overseas, alongside the British.
Everyone who enlisted formed the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), a brand new field force that was different from the pre-existing Canadian Militia. The first group traveled to England for training, before being sent to the Western Front. The first large-scale engagement the Canadians were involved was the Second Battle of Ypres, notoriously known as the first time the Germans used poison gas on massive numbers of soldiers.
Beginning of the Canadians’ legacy
British soldiers during tests to develop better protection against gas attacks, 1917. (Photo Credit: Daily Mirror / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)
The Canadians were positioned in the Ypres Salient, with the British on the right and the French on their left. When the Germans released the first round of poison gas, the French were largely diminished, leaving the Canadian soldiers exposed. Not only were they open to the enemy, but they were also exposed to a second German gas attack two days later. Despite this, they still managed a controlled retreat while awaiting British reinforcements.
The Canadians’ earned themselves a reputation as tough and dependable in this first major engagement, which would only be further reinforced as the war went on. In addition to being solid troops, they became known as some of the most ruthless among their enemies. Although the reason for their ruthlessness isn’t known, some historians think it may have been because Canadian units were hit hardest by the unexpected gas attacks during the Second Battle of Ypres.
Canadian soldiers weren’t friendly with the German enemy
16th Canadian Machine Gun Company using shell holes as makeshift defenses at Passchendaele Ridge. (Photo Credit: William Rider-Rider / Getty Images)
The Canadians quickly became known as some of the most merciless combatants. They rarely took any prisoners of war, recalling that, if they did, the POWs would get a share of their rations. When they did capture enemy soldiers, however, they were known to have “the worst reputation for acts of violence against prisoners.”
Perhaps one of the most shocking instances of Canadian cruelty was when they were socializing with German soldiers. They would throw cans of corned beef across the trenches, and when the enemy troops yelled for more, the Canucks responded by throwing an armload of grenades at them instead.
There are other instances of Canadians being brutally excessive in their actions toward the enemy. On Christmas 1915, Canadian soldiers were fighting against the Germans when a temporary peace broke out, causing the fighting to cease. The Germans called over to wish them a Merry Christmas. Both sides put their heads above the trenches, but one of the Canadian sergeants, acting on orders not to speak with the enemy, shot two enemy soldiers.
Pioneers of the trench raid
Canadian soldiers resting in a trench in France, 1918. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Not only were Canadians known for their behavior from within their own trenches, they also became known for their dedication to trench raids, which were commonplace during WWI. They were conducted in the earliest years of the conflict by other forces, but the Canadians started conducting large scale raids when they arrived on the Western Front.
Trench raids were incredibly dangerous, as they required soldiers to come out of the cover of their trenches to cross No Man’s Land, in an attempt to gain access to enemy trenches. The goal of conducting these raids varied. They could be done to kill the enemy, destroy parts of their trench systems and fortifications, or gain important intelligence. They also served a psychological purpose, as the soldiers didn’t have to wait for an enemy shell to hit their own trench.
The Canadians quickly became experts, refining their techniques and creating their own weapons for use during the raids. Typical weapons were often not as effective, so items like clubs, knives and brass knuckles were used, as they allowed the raiders to stay silent, unlike mechanized tools.
Perfecting their skills
Aircraft of the Royal Air Force (RAF) and French Air Force dip their wings in salute as they fly over the Canadian War Memorial at Vimy Ridge during the dedication ceremony, 1936. (Photo Credit: Staff / Mirrorpix / Getty Images)
As they say, practice makes perfect, and the Canadians certainly honed their skills through practice. They became known as some of the most enthusiastic when it came to performing trench raids. They wore thick black gloves and would paint their faces black, so it was harder to see them as they moved stealthily toward an enemy trench.
“The Canadians transformed trench raiding to a deadly art, which wore away at the enemy’s morale and strength as he was kept taut and nervous whenever opposite the ‘wild colonials,’” said Tim Cook in a paper for the Canadian War Museum.
Despite the Canadians’ skill at trench raiding, they still suffered heavy casualties. This prompted many countries to stop the practice, as high numbers of troops were killed and those who survived didn’t want to go back. However, this didn’t stop the Canadians. In fact, they were able to use trench raids in the lead up to their most famous battle.
Leading up to the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Canadians conducted nightly large-scale raids. These consisted of up to 900 men and were intended to kill German troops. In the four months leading up to Vimy Ridge, they led 55 nighttime trench raids against the Germans.
Real-life stormtroopers
Canadian Highlanders marching through London during the Lord Mayor’s Procession, 1915. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)
The Canadians’ legacy in the First World War is one that’s exemplified by how they were viewed by those who fought with and against them. After facing Canadian soldiers at the Battle of the Somme, the Germans began calling them “Sturmtruppen,” or “Stormtroopers,” because of their bravery and speed in battle.
In an interview with Explorica, author and historian Dee Dauphinee explained the shift, saying, “After the war, the entire world knew what Canada had contributed to the effort.” He added, “Canada was never again thought of as a ‘Little Brother’ dominion of Britain…they had earned a seat in that little railroad car, parked outside of Versailles. And they had earned it the hard way.”
It wasn’t only the Germans using a special nickname for Canadian soldiers. By 1918, they had more than proven themselves in the field, earning the title of “shock troops” – servicemen who’d carry out hard missions and fulfill their objectives – among their allies.
World War I was the first major conflict to feature aircraft engage in aerial battles. At the time, it was incredibly dangerous to take to the skies, with about one in five British pilots dying during the conflict – and even more while training. In spite of the dangers, Indra Lal Roy flew his aircraft on various missions and became India’s first (and only) flying ace fighter pilot.
Indra Lal Roy’s early life and upbringing
When the First World War broke out, Indra Lal Roy was a student at St. Paul’s School in Hammersmith, England. (Photo Credit: Sir Michael Francis Joseph McDonnell / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Indra Lal Roy was born in Calcutta, India on December 2, 1898. His father was a lawyer, and the family lived on an estate called Lakhutia, which had been founded in the 17th century by their ancestor, Roop Chandra Roy.
Roy had a number of prominent relatives. His grandfather, Soorjo Coomar Goodeve Chuckerbutty, was one of the first Indian doctors to be trained in the Western style of medicine. Paresh Lal Roy, his older brother, was a soldier with the 1st Battalion, Honourable Artillery Company and is known as the “Father of Indian Boxing” for his role in popularizing the sport in India.
Roy’s nephew, Subroto Mukerjee, eventually followed in his famous uncles’ footsteps and join the Indian Air Force. After participating in the Second World War, he became the first Chief of Staff of the service.
Indra Lal Roy was committed to fighting in the First World War
Indra Lal Roy sold his motorcycle to ensure he could join the Royal Flying Corps. (Photo Credit: India Post, Government of India / Wikimedia Commons GODL-India)
At the outset of World War I, Indra Lal Roy was attending St. Paul’s School in Hammersmith, England. He attempted to join the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), but was turned down due to his eyesight. Undeterred, he sold his motorcycle and used the funds to seek a second opinion on his sight. He was successful in his efforts and the decision to bar him from serving was overturned.
The teen formally joined the RFC in April 1917, at the age of 18, and a few months later was commissioned as a second lieutenant. After completing flight and weapons training at Turnberry and Vendôme, he was assigned to No. 56 Squadron as part of “A” flight.
“The Boy Who Came Back From the Dead”
During his time in the Royal Flying Corps, Indra Lal Roy flew Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 biplanes. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Flying for No. 56 Squadron, Indra Lal Roy was tasked with flying a Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a biplane. The aircraft was able to fly incredibly fast while also maintaining maneuverability. On December 6, 1917, Roy was in the air when he was shot down over France by a German fighter.
He lost consciousness after his aircraft fell to the ground. He was taken to a hospital, where he was assumed dead. However, upon being taken to the morgue, Roy shocked an attendant by knocking on the door and asking what was going on. From that day on, staff took to calling the pilot the “Boy Who Came Back From the Dead.”
Indra Lal Roy becomes a Flying Ace
An Indian stamp commemorates Indra Lal Roy’s heroism during the First World War. (Photo Credit: India Post, Government of India / Wikimedia Commons GODL-India)
After his near-death experience, superiors wanted to prevent Indra Lal Roy from flying again. He returned to active-duty as an equipment officer, and was eventually cleared by doctors to return to the skies.
Roy went on to have a stunning streak of victories. He won his first aerial victory on July 6, 1918 by shooting down a Hannover CL.III over Drocourt. Two days later, he shot down an additional two Hannovers, as well as a German Fokker D.VII (one of the victories was shared). Additional victories included the downing of a Pflaz D.III and a DFW C.V.
Roy’s skills as a fighter pilot allowed him to become the first and only Indian Flying Ace of the First World War. Shortly after achieving the title, he was shot down by a group of German aircraft while flying over Carvin. He was just 19 years old.
Indra Lal Roy’s legacy
Indra Lal Roy was laid to rest at Estevelles Communal Cemetery in Pas-de-Calais, France. (Photo Credit: Kwait59 / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)
Following his death, Indra Lal Roy was championed as a hero. He was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, for which the citation reads, “A very gallant and determined officer, who in thirteen days accounted for nine enemy machines. In these several engagements he has displayed remarkable skill and daring, on more than one occasion accounting for two machines in one patrol.”
Roy is also recognized as a hero in his native India. Multiple commemorative stamps have been released in his honor.
Many of the bloodiest battles in World War I occurred along the Western Front. There was, however, another lesser-known combat theater that was as equally brutal and bloody: the Isonzo Front. This was the site of the Battles of the Isonzo, which saw more than one million casualties over two years of fighting.
Overview of the Battles of the Isonzo
The Battles of the Isonzo were a series of 12 battles fought between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian armies along the border of what today is Slovenia. Lined with rugged peaks, the Austro-Hungarian forces had fortified the surrounding mountains before Italy officially entered the war.
Italy set its sights on Austria-Hungary following the 1915 Treaty of London, which promised the country territories belonging to the Empire. Led by Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna, the Italians planned to seize Ljubljana. The first attack came on June 23, 1915. Despite their efforts and having more soldiers (ratio of 2:1), the Italian Army failed to secure a victory against the heavily-fortified Austro-Hungarian forces.
Italian infantry during one of the Battles of the Isonzo, 1917. (Photo Credit: Photo12 / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
Cadorna believed the best location to launch an attack was the lower end of the Isonzo River, but he also saw a potential opportunity by striking north, to avoid the mountains altogether. Following the initial attack, the Italians tried to gain ground over several other offensives, and while they managed to penetrate a few miles, the Austro-Hungarian forces inflicted heavy losses.
It was clear the only way to succeed was for the Italian Army to take out positions in the mountains. However, at the same time, they had to cross the Isonzo River if they wanted to neutralize the Austro-Hungarian defenses – a dilemma Italy’s forces would never overcome.
From August 6-17, 1916, Cadorna captured the town of Gorizia – the Italians’ first real taste of victory. Learning from a year’s worth of mistakes, they’d adapted their attacks to be short and intense targeted strikes to reduce the already overwhelming number of casualties.
Austro-Hungarian heavy ordnance during the Battles of the Isonzo. (Photo Credit: ullstein bild / Getty Images)
Even with a better strategy, the next three battles throughout the autumn of 1916 were marred by the fortresses of the Austro-Hungarian-controlled mountains. As the fight for the Isonzo continued, countless resources were poured into what many could argue was a seemingly pointless conflict.
Mounting casualties
The casualties of the Battles of the Isonzo were horrific. Some 645,000 Italian soldiers were killed, accounting for roughly half of Italian military casualties throughout the First World War. The Austro-Hungarians suffered 450,000, for an overall total of around 1.2 million casualties – and that was prior to the final battle.
Austro-Hungarian soldiers on their way to hospital following one of the Battles of the Isonzo, 1915. (Photo Credit: Art Media / Print Collector / Getty Images)
According to reports, the final battle, also known as the Battle of Caporetto, resulted in around 305,000 Italian casualties and 70,000 on the Austro-Hungarian side.
The first eleven Battles of the Isonzo
First Battle – June 23-July 7, 1915: Cadorna, a firm believer in the benefits of the campaign in Austria-Hungary, launched the first attack. The battle lasted 14 days, and, as aforementioned, the Italians were fought back by the Austro-Hungarians. The Italians were ultimately defeated.
Second Battle – July 18-August 3, 1915: The Italian Army captured Cappuccio Wood, as well as Mount Batognica. The battle only concluded when both sides ran out of ammunition. Later on, the Austro-Hungarian forces were able to reoccupy Cappuccio Wood.
Third Battle – October 18-November 3, 1915: The primary Italian objectives were to take two bridgeheads (Tolmin and Bovec) and, if possible, the town of Gorizia. They advanced to the Piave River, but ultimately stalled and failed to gain ground due to heavy Austro-Hungarian defenses.
The Italian Army retreats during the Isonzo Campaign, 1917. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Fourth Battle — November 10-December 2, 1915: The Italian Second Army attempted to occupy Gorizia. They successfully captured the nearby area of Oslavia and San Floriano del Collio, but failed to take their initial target. At the same time, the Italian Third Army launched a series of attacks, but these failed to bring about any significant gains.
Fifth Battle – March 9-17, 1916: The Second and Third Italian Armies once again attempted to take Gorizia, in order to reach the Tolmin Bridgehead. Though the battle was less bloody than those previous, Gorizia still remained free of Italian control.
Sixth Battle – August 6-17, 1916: The Italians were finally able to capture Gorizia, through the use of hand-to-hand combat, along with the Oslavia-Podgora Ridge and San Michele. The offensive is considered the most successful Italian attack along the Isonzo Front and was responsible for improving troop morale.
Seventh Battle – September 14-17, 1916: The Italian Army switched from broad attacks to focused ones. Over three days, the Italian forces saw minor victories in areas surrounding the Soča River Valley, in present-day Slovenia.
German machine gunners defend a position during the Isonzo Campaign, 1917. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Eighth Battle – October 10-12, 1916: With a similar goal to the previous, this offensive saw both sides struggle to achieve victory, as heavy Italian casualties forced the battle to be called off. They suffered between 50,000 and 60,000 casualties, while the Austro-Hungarian forces saw 38,000.
Ninth Battle – November 1-4, 1916: Now positioned in the Soča River Valley, the Italian Army tried to advance further inland, but were, again, met with heavy Austro-Hungarian resistance.
Tenth Battle – May 12-June 8, 1917: By this point, Cadorna was beginning to worry about the German Army aiding the Austro-Hungarian forces. The Italians deployed 38 divisions against 14 from Austria-Hungary and began what would be a multi-week infantry advance along a 40 km front. The nearly month-long battle resulted in the Italians struggling to gain any major advances.
Eleventh Battle – August 19-September 12, 1917: By consolidating their position near Monfalcone, Italy and the Banjšice Plateau, this offensive is considered one of the few tactical victories for the Italians, who broke through the Austro-Hungarian line in two areas.
The twelfth and final Battle of the Isonzo
The twelfth Battle of the Isonzo was one of the most sweeping successes of the war. Austro-Hungarian and German forces collaborated and broke through the Italian line along the northern end of the Isonzo, surprising the enemy. By the afternoon of October 24, 1917, the Italians were exhausted and overwhelmed by the Austrian offensive attack; the troops threw down their weapons as Austrians rushed over the Isonzo River to claim Caporetto.
The Italians retreated toward the Piave River, where they established a position by the middle of November. It’s known as one of the worst losses in Italian history.
Austro-Hungarian troops advance during the Isonzo Campaign, 1916. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
At the end of the Battles of the Isonzo, both sides had suffered massive losses, with very little accomplished. The fighting triggered violent anti-war protests throughout Italy, and Cadorna was forced to resign from his role. A new Italian strategy was put in place by Gen. Armando Diaz, who transformed Italy’s role in the war. By shifting from offensive campaigns to defensive ones, the country grew to be a resourceful aid to the Allied forces for the remainder of the war.
Ernest Hemingway’s famed novel, A Farewell to Arms, was somewhat inspired by the bloody Battles of the Isonzo. The book follows the first-person account of an American lieutenant serving in the Ambulance Corps of the Italian Army. Hemingway drew from his own experiences as an ambulance driver along the Italian Front during the Great War.
