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In the lead up to the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Paul Tibbets was tasked with training a group of pilots on the newly-produced Boeing B-29 Superfortress. However, he soon ran into a problem: the men refused to get into the aircraft.

The bomber was larger and less thoroughly-tested than other aircraft used throughout the Second World War, and the pilots thought it was too dangerous to fly. Refusal to use the B-29s, however, was not an option, so Tibbets concocted a plan to train two female pilots to give flight demonstrations to the men. His plan was a resounding success.

Problems with the B-29’s engines

Paul Tibbets, 1960. (Photo Credit: US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Paul Tibbets, having served in both the European and Pacific Theaters, was called back to the US in 1943 to help with the development of the B-29 Superfortress. After testing of the bomber was complete, he was reassigned as the director of operations for the 17th Bombardment Operational Training Wing (Very Heavy) and tasked with training pilots to fly the new aircraft.

The women who flew the B-29 Superfortress

L to R: Frances Green, Peg Kirchner, Ann Waldner and Blanche Osborne, WASPs who were trained to ferry the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, 1944. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Public Domain)

Tibbets thought that if he could get female pilots to train on the aircraft, the men might not be scared to fly the B-29. He recruited two Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) for the role. He didn’t disclose to Dora Dougherty Strother or Dorothea Johnson “Didi” Moorman that there had been issues with the aircraft, and the pair didn’t experience any problems when piloting them.

Neither woman had even flown a four-engine aircraft, which is why they were picked for the job – Tibbets wanted to show that anyone could fly a B-29. He trained Strother and Moorman for only three days before deciding they were ready to give demonstrations to the male pilots.

Reception as demonstration pilots

Dora Dougherty Strother and two anonymous women (WASPs), who flew aircraft during the Second World War, 1943. (Photo Credit: US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Strother and Moorman were successful in getting the male pilots to fly the B-29s. A maintenance bulletin written by Maj. Harry Shilling gave them praise for both their flying abilities and knowledge of the aircraft. He encouraged the men on the base to ask them questions about how to handle the bombers and emulate their impressive takeoffs.

Despite their success, Strother and Moorman didn’t have their jobs as demonstration pilots for long. When Tibbets’ superiors found out he was letting women fly the B-29s, they forced him to shut down the program. Air Staff Maj. Gen. Barney Giles told him that the women were “putting the big football players to shame.”

Remembering their role

Dora Dougherty Strother in front of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress “Ladybird” with Paul Tibbets, Dorothea Johnson “Didi” Moorman and its aircrew, 1943. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Although their role as demonstration pilots may seem small, it wasn’t viewed as such by the men who watched them. On August 2, 1995, Harry McKeown, a retired lieutenant colonel with the US Air Force, wrote a letter to Strother about her role flying the B-29s. He’d met her and Moorman in 1944 when they brought a B-29 to Clovis Army Airfield, where he served as the Director of Maintenance & Supply and a test pilot.

He said that after their demonstration “we never had a pilot who didn’t want to fly the B-29,” and ended his letter on a more personal note. “I still want to thank you for your helping me that day at Clovis,” he wrote. “I will admit that I was scared… You made the difference in my flying from then on. I wasn’t the only pilot that felt this way, and I am sure that they would thank you too if they knew where you were.”

Life after the war

Dora Dougherty Strother after having just broken a helicopter altitude record, 1961. (Photo Credit: Smithsonian Institution / Flickr / No Known Copyright Restrictions)

Both women carried on with the WASPs until the organization disbanded in 1944. Strother went on to earn her PhD from New York University and worked for Bell Helicopters from 1962-86. She kept in touch with McKeown and married him in 2002. Moorman raised five children in North Carolina after the war, and kept in close contact with Tibbets until her death in 2005.

The WASPs, including Strother and Moorman, were denied military veteran status until 1977, when the US House and Senate voted to grant them what they had earned. This decision made them eligible for veterans benefits and also allowed the woman to commemorate their fallen sisters as veterans – something they hadn’t previously been able to do.

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union and the United States were in a constant fight to one-up each other when it came to weapons and military vehicles. One of the Soviet Union’s most impressive achievements was the development of the Mil Mi-24 Hind helicopter. While intended to help the Russian cause, today, the chopper is being used against its country of origin.

Helicopters first saw use during the Second World War

The Bell UH-1 “Huey” was flown during the Vietnam War and could fire guns and transport troops. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

During the Second World War, combat via air became much more prominent. While this meant an increase in the number of plane battles, it also saw the use of helicopters. At that point, however, choppers didn’t see much combat and were, instead, used to transport injured soldiers and ferry troops over rough terrain.

The Vietnam War saw the first example of armored helicopters. The Bell UH-1 Iroquois – or “Huey” – was important to the war effort. It was armed with guns that could be used to rain fire from the air, and also had the ability to transport troops. It couldn’t, however, perform both actions at the same time.

The Russians looked to develop a superior helicopter model

An early version of the Mil Mi-24A Hind on display at the Riga Aviation Museum. (Photo Credit: Riyaah / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In the 1960s, designer Mikhail Mil began work on the Soviet answer to the Huey. However, unlike the American helicopter, the plan was for the aircraft to ferry troops and fire its guns at the same time. Despite concerns over cost, the chopper was built with a twin-engine design, and its ability to carry a wide range of rockets, missiles, bombs, guns and cannons led to it being nicknamed the “flying tank.”

Testing began in the late ’60s and improvements were made over time. The helicopter was known for how quick it was and soon set records for speed. The Americans realized the Russians were in the process of creating a superior chopper and began work on their own in the early 1970s, resulting in the Sikorsky S-67 Blackhawk. However, the lone prototype crashed in September 1974, and the US Army reassigned the Black Hawk name to the UH-60.

The Hind helicopter was brutally effective

The Mujahideen used American-supplied Stinger missiles to combat Hind helicopters during the Soviet-Afghan War. (Photo Credit: KIM JAE-HWAN / AFP / Getty Images)

The first time the Hind helicopter saw combat was in 1977, when Russia supported the Ethiopians in the Ogaden War against Somalia. Mil Mi-24s were an important part of Ethiopia’s success, as the nation was able to take back Ogaden from the Somalis.

Mi-24s were, again, seen during the nearly 10-year Chadian-Libyan conflict, along with Mil Mi-25s. At one point, the Armed Forces of the North, a group of Chadian Rebels, were able to capture Mi-25s – two were sent to France and one to the US.

The Ukrainian military is using Hind helicopters against the Russians

The Czech Republic has provided Ukraine with Hind helicopters to defend against the ongoing Russian invasion. (Photo Credit: HUM Images / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

In February 2022, the Russian Army invaded Ukraine. If Ukraine was a member of NATO, the full force of the organization would have helped combat the threat from Russia. Despite not having joined, the country has received support from a number of member nations.

When it comes to awards and accolades, the Convair B-58 Hustler is truly unrivaled. The first bomber to ever reach Mach 2, its speed is what set the B-58 apart from the rest – but this also came with its own consequences. The aircraft was constructed with top-of-the-line technology and piloted by the best the US Air Force had to offer, but it was also equipped with a fatal flaw.

Development of the first supersonic bomber

In 1946, the US Army Air Corps launched its first investigation into developing a supersonic bomber. Known as the Generalized Bomber Study (GEBO I), the country’s three leading aerospace companies – Boeing, Convair and North American – raced to see who could design the service’s next strategic bomber.

The four General Electric J79-5A engines and delta wing configuration of the Convair B-58 Hustler. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

By 1949, another study was commissioned, the GEBO II, which included input from the aforementioned three companies, as well as Douglas, Curtiss and Martin. Each submitted a proposed design, with Convair’s delta wing configuration ultimately chosen as the superior model.

The Convair B-58 Hustler was small, but mighty

The Convair B-58 Hustler had a maximum speed of 1,325 MPH, with a service ceiling of 64,800 feet and a range of 4,400 miles. The bomber was outfitted with four General Electric J79-5A turbojet engines, each capable of producing 15,000 pounds of dry thrust.

Convair B-58 Hustler equipped with nuclear bombs. (Photo Credit: Camerique / Getty Images)

The B-58 also set 19 world speed and altitude records and won five aviation trophies. However, this success came at a cost. By 1961, the program had cost $3 billion dollars (roughly $30 billion today). As well, maintenance costs were exceptionally high. For example, the average maintenance cost per flying hour for the Boeing B-47 Stratojet was $361, while it was $1,440 per hour for the B-58.

Until its retirement in 1970, the B-58 was operated by two Strategic Air Command (SAC) bomb wings: the 43rd Bombardment Wing and the 305th Bombardment Wing.

The Convair B-58 Hustler’s unconventional configuration

One of the most unique aspects of the Convair B-58 Hustler was its crew configuration. Comprised of a pilot, navigator and defense systems operator, the three-person crew was each housed in their own tandem cockpit. Apparently, they had no physical contact with each other and had to resort to passing notes along a string and pulley system inside the cabin.

The defense systems operator had a wide range of complex systems available in their own cockpit, making the B-58 one of the most difficult aircraft to operate at the time.

A ejection capsule test for the Convair B-58 Hustler. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Another distinct feature of the B-58 was its ejection seats. Called an “ejection capsule,” the crew members each had a protective clamshell that enclosed the seat and control stick, along with an attached oxygen cylinder. This allowed the pilot to fly right up until the very last second before ejecting. Once ejected, the crew could pop open the clamshell exterior and use it as a life raft.

The ejection seats were originally tested on bears and chimpanzees. During a test in 1963, a bear became the first living creature to survive an ejection at supersonic speed.

The bomber’s fatal flaw

The Convair B-58 Hustler’s main defense was its speed. At the time, it was believed that, as long as you could fly higher, farther and faster than the enemy, no one would be in harm’s way. According to the overwhelming number of recorded accidents, however, that couldn’t be farther from the truth.

Aerial view of the Convair B-58 Hustler. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

Of the 116 B-58s that were built, 26 of them were lost and 36 crew members were killed. Several major accidents occurred throughout the bomber’s 10 years of service. One happened on October 27, 1959, before the aircraft was introduced into service.

A B-58 was being flown from Texas to Florida by three civilian crew members: pilot Everett Wheeler and two flight engineers, Michael Keller and Harry Blosser. During the fight, the bomber developed a problem, forcing the three to eject. Keller and Wheeler both landed safely, but Blosser’s body was found the next day, still strapped to the ejection seat.

The plane crashed into a field in Mississippi.

Convair B-58 Hustler equipped with a B61 nuclear bomb. (Photo Credit: Umeyou / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

In June 1961, a B-58 crashed during the Paris Airshow, killing all three crew members. The same aircraft had previously accomplished the first supersonic transatlantic crossing, flying from New York to Paris in record time.

Another incident could have ended in nuclear catastrophe, when a B-58 carrying five nuclear weapons slid off the runway at Bunker Hill Air Force Base (now Grissom Air Reserve Base) and burst into flames. The weapons were burned, but contamination was still detected in the area.

The accomplished Convair B-58 Hustler never saw action

Despite its troubled past, the Convair B-58 Hustler’s legacy continues to influence the development of supersonic aircraft. Some of the many records it holds are still intact today!

One of the eight remaining Convair B-58A Hustler supersonic bombers on display at the Pima Air and Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. (Photo Credit: Brendan Smialowski / AFP / Getty Images)

In 1970, the B-58 was retired and never reconfigured for non-nuclear bombing missions. Of the 116 produced, only eight remain. Ultimately, the B-58’s short range, expensive upkeep and disastrous death count were its downfall. One director at the Strategic Air Command even commented that, so long as the “Soviet Union and not Canada was the enemy, range would matter.”

Throughout the course of the Russo-Ukrainian War, the US has offered to send – and has sent – an array of weapons and equipment to the Ukrainian military. Calls for additional resources continue to come in, with the Ukrainian Air Force asking for modern Western aircraft. The US Air Force recently said it’s willing to send a portion of its Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II fleet, something that hasn’t impressed Ukraine’s minister of defence.

Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt IIs with the 103rd Fighter Squadron of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard. (Photo Credit: Kenn Mann / USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

US military officials and the Ukrainian Ministry of Defence have been in ongoing talks regarding what type of aircraft to send. While the primary and immediate focus is on defeating the invading Russian forces, there’s also a hope of building the Ukrainian Air Force to protect against future adversaries.

On July 20, 2022, Secretary of the US Air Force Frank Kendall said the service would be willing to send some of the country’s A-10 fleet, should Ukrainian officials want them. This goes against what he said in March at the AFA Air Warfare Symposium, when he seemingly dismissed the idea. The Air Force has been trying to retire the aging attack aircraft, but has experienced resistance from the US Congress.

23rd Fighter Group on alert in their Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt IIs. (Photo Credit: SSgt Nathan G. Bevier / United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

However, it appears Ukraine isn’t interested in America’s old A-10s. Writing in a message to Military.com, Yuriy Sak, an adviser to Ukrainian Minister of Defence Oleksii Reznikov, said the country doesn’t want the aircraft and, instead, would like a fleet of General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcons, saying the A-10s “will not close our sky, they will not stop bombers and missiles.”

He added that the attack aircraft would “be a target for Russian jet fighters and anti-aircraft defense, because we don’t have the means neither to cover them, nor to break through the enemy anti-aircraft defence,” and said the A-10 would have similar disadvantages to the Sukhoi Su-25, which the Ukrainian Air Force currently flies.

A Ukrainian serviceman walks near a burning car after an air strike in the courtyard of the Industria Hotel and civilian residences in the center of Kramatorsk, on July 7, 2022. (Photo Credit: MIGUEL MEDINA / AFP / Getty Images)

Ukraine hasn’t been shy in asking for modern US fighters, with its air force tweeting in March that it needed both the F-16 and the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. At the time, the service claimed it could train its pilots to fly the aircraft in just two or three weeks, something experts don’t think is possible.

Another concern is that it would be difficult getting American contractors to assist in parts maintenance on the ground in Ukraine. In response to this, Sak said the F-16 is flown by a number of Allies situated nearby, meaning the country could lean on those partnerships. Among those in the region flying the aircraft are Poland and Romania, both of whom are former Warsaw Pact countries.

Speaking with Air Force Magazine, he said, “F-16s are still something that our pilots dream about. F-16s are a global symbol of the aviation might and force. We really hope that our pilots will be able to fly some of them to protect our country and show the world that Ukraine is a modern Army capable of protecting the whole of Europe.”

General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. (Photo Credit: Cp9asngf / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the same interview, Sak compared the potential new fighters to the M142 High Mobility Artillery Rocket Systems (HIMARS) that the US has sent to Ukraine. Not only have they met the current needs of the battlefield, but they’ve also allowed the country to transition into NATO-standard weapons.

“These HIMARS systems, they are really a game changer,” he said. “They’ve pretty much stalled the Russian offensive. We’ve been able to destroy 50 munitions depots and command centers in the last 10 days.”

People stand in front of an Ukrainian flag as dark smoke and flames rise from a fire following an air strike in the western Ukrainian city of Lviv, on March 26, 2022. (Photo Credit: ALEKSEY FILIPPOV / AFP / Getty Images)

The Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II – affectionately known as the A-10 Warthog – has been in service with the US military since the 1970s. Over 700 were produced between 1972-84, and the aircraft has seen service in such conflicts as the Gulf War and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

At present, different sections of the Air Force fly the aircraft, including the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard.

Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptors with the US Air Force have landed in the United Kingdom, with their final destination being Poland. The deployment of the fighter jets is part of NATO’s Air Shielding mission, which aims to increase the organization’s aerial presence in Eastern Europe.

32nd Tactical Air Base, Łask, Poland. (Photo Credit: A1C Ryan Conroy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The F-22s are from the 90th Fighter Squadron, 3rd Wing at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska. They landed at RAF Lakenheath on July 27, 2022, with plans to travel to the 32nd Tactical Air Base, Łask, Poland. Once there, they will become the 90th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron, under NATO.

According to a press release from the US Air Forces in Europe & Air Forces Africa, the “NATO Air Shielding mission integrates Allied Air and Surface Based Air and Missile Defence units into the NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defence system under NATO Command and Control.” The aim of the mission is to provide a defensive shield from the Baltic to the Black Sea, “ensuring NATO Allies are better able to safeguard and protect Alliance territory, populations and forces from air and missile threat.”

The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War and the NATO summit in Madrid reinforced the need for countries to do more to stop Russia from trying to claim additional territory. In response, the organization is aiming to boost its aerial presence in the region.

Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. (Photo Credit: Staff Sgt. Austin M. May / U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The F-22 Raptor is the US Air Force‘s most advanced fighter jet. Able to reach supersonic speeds, it features a 20 mm cannon and can be equipped with six AIM-120 radar-guided and two AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. While designed to primarily participate in air-to-air combat, the aircraft can be configured for air-to ground combat with two 1,000-pound Joint Direct Attack Munitions.

Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor. (Photo Credit: Tech. Sgt. Kevin J. Gruenwald / U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Actors Jonathan Majors and Glen Powell portray famed naval aviators Jesse L. Brown and Thomas J. Hudner Jr. in the upcoming Korean War film, Devotion. The movie has gained traction since the release of its official trailer, but what has caught the attention of military enthusiasts is the fact the production featured the use of aircraft from the 1950s.

Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)

Devotion features a number of aircraft that were flown during the Korean War, including a Douglas A-1 (AD) Skyraider, a Grumman F8F Bearcat, a number of Vought F4U Corsairs, a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 and a Sikorsky HO5S-1 helicopter. A modified Aero L-39 Albatros was also used as an air-to-air camera platform.

Speaking with Entertainment Weekly about the use of the aircraft, director J.D. Dillard, himself the son of a US Navy aviator, said he was dedicated to authenticity:

Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)

The film tells the story of the friendship between Jesse Brown, the Navy’s first African-American aviator, and Thomas Hudner. The latter was inspired to join the service following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor during the Second World War, while the former earned his wings in October 1948.

The pair were both assigned to Fighter Squadron 32 (VFA-32) onboard the USS Leyte (CV-32), flying F4U-4 Corsairs. During this time, Hudner proved to be a true friend of Brown’s, providing him support at a time when there were few Black servicemen in the Armed Forces.

Jesse Brown and Thomas Hudner. (Photo Credit: 1. U.S. Navy / National Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 2. Jwillbur / Naval Historical Center Online Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Prior to portraying Brown in Devotion, Jonathan Majors had gained fame through his appearances in HBO’s Lovecraft Country and Disney’s Loki. In the interview with Entertainment Weekly, he shared that he was immediately interested in portraying the naval aviator in the film, as his family has a history of not only serving in the Navy, but with the US Army and Air Force, as well.

“I myself haven’t [served],” he told the publication. “But there’s something about the soldier archetype that’s always kind of been with me.”

He also shared his determination to experiencing flight in the same way pilots at the time did. “I call it the dog s**t reality,” he said. “You know, getting in the plane, trying to hold your lunch down, your breakfast down, sweating bullets out in the flight. I refused to take Dramamine because they didn’t have it [during the Korean War].

“I refused to come down. They were like, ‘Are you sick?’ ‘Yeah, I’m sick as a dog.’ ‘Do you want to come down?’ ‘No, I don’t want to go down. Keep going!’ Because you want to experience it.”

Devotion, 2022. (Photo Credit: yassi / Sony Pictures / Columbia Pictures / MovieStillsDB)

Devotion is slated to premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF), before debuting in theaters on November 23, 2022.

The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk was the first ever operational US Air Force stealth aircraft. It proved to be highly successful and effective, operating in a number of missions, including the US invasion of Panama and the Gulf War.

Despite its impressive record, the F-117 was put into early retirement after just under 25 years of service. The cause? It made a lot of sacrifices in exchange for stealth, eventually fading into the shadow of newer technologies and better aircraft.

The intention of the F-117 Nighthawk

Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk flying over the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range, near Edwards Air Force Base, California. (Photo Credit: Thomas J. Pitsor / USAF / Getty Images)

The F-117 Nighthawk was designed in response to America’s urgent need for a jet fighter that could fly undetected. During the Vietnam War and the Yom Kippur War, Soviet surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) downed heavy bombers and other aircraft, as they were easily detectable on radar.

Lockheed was responsible for creating the stealth jet, which flew in 1981. Deliveries began the following year, with operational capacity reached in 1983. The F-117’s existence remained a secret until 1988, when the program became public knowledge. Even still, it was another two years before the aircraft made its first public appearance.

The F-117 was designed to reflect radar waves using angular panels and an external coating of radar-absorbent material. The angular design allowed for a reduction in the aircraft’s radar signature, with aerodynamic control provided through onboard computer units. It also boasted a small radar cross-section, and the combination made the aircraft nearly invisible to radar.

The F-117 Nighthawk had its fair share of limitations

The Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attracted the greatest interest at the International Aerospace Exhibition at Berlin-Schöenefeld Airport in 2000. (Photo Credit: Wolfgang Kumm / Picture Alliance / Getty Images)

Unfortunately, the F-117 Nighthawk had limitations that forced it into retirement relatively quickly. To begin with, its ability to carry radar equipment was replaced with the capability to emit lower emissions and increase its stealth. This hindered the F-117’s effectiveness as a fighter.

The F-117 also had what developers called a “wing failure” problem. The design sacrificed aerodynamics for a smaller radar cross-section and that sometimes forced the wing and tail sections to come apart. The aircraft also had no afterburner and a lower engine thrust, so it couldn’t make hasty escapes in the case of a dogfight.

The aircraft wasn’t actually a fighter jet

Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk flying over Death Valley, California. (Photo Credit: Jerod Harris / Getty Images)

The “F”-prefix designation of the F-117 Nighthawk is slightly misleading, as the aircraft isn’t a fighter jet. The designation is given to aircraft that are designed specifically for engaging other aircraft in battle – AKA, air-to-air combat. The F-117 didn’t fit this designation, as it was intended to engage ground targets in secrecy.

The F-117 didn’t carry any guns and only offered a payload of two 2,000-pound bombs. Its lack of radar also meant it couldn’t support radar-guided weapons. The only ones it could facilitate were infrared-guided or heat-seeking missiles, but the only way they could be fired was if the pilot spotted enemy aircraft with his or her own eyes.

Ultimately, the F-117 was not equipped for success if it found itself in a dogfight. Gen. Robert J. Dixon, who served at Tactical Air Command, explained the reason for the “F” designation was to entice the highest skilled and most capable pilots to join the new stealth program. A new attack aircraft just doesn’t have the same appeal as a new stealth fighter.

Loss during the Kosovo War

The remains of a Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk shot down during NATO’s airstrike assault over Yugoslavia in 1999. (Photo Credit: ANDREJ ISAKOVIC / AFP / Getty Images)

The issue with trying to make the F-117 Nighthawk a weapons-capable fighter was that the pilot would have to open the weapons bay door to fire the internal payload. Unfortunately, once its doors were open, the aircraft’s stealth was entirely compromised. That’s exactly what happened during the March-June 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.

When Lt. Col. Darrell Patrick “Dale” Zelko was piloting his F-117A during the Kosovo War, he opened his weapons bay door and exposed his position to an enemy commander who had secured a lock on his aircraft. Two surface-to-air missiles were fired from a Mikoyan MiG-29, striking the F-117 and forcing Zelko to eject. There was little else he could do.

The F-117 Nighthawk enters retirement

While the last F-117 Nighthawk was delivered in 1990, the aircraft still saw action during the Gulf War. During Operation Desert Storm, F-117s were credited with having flown approximately 1,300 sorties and hitting 1,600 high-value targets in Iraq. The aircraft was also flown during the breakup of Yugoslavia, where the aforementioned F-117 was downed, and in the early stages of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Following the Second World War and the creation of the US Air Force, the US Army was in need of a new observation and liaison aircraft. This led to the development of what became known as the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog, which was flown extensively by the American forces in both Korea and Vietnam.

The US Army’s need for a new aircraft

Following the US Army Air Forces separation from the US Army in 1947, the latter was without a much-needed air support wing. This led it to conduct a search for a single-engine, two-seat monoplane that could perform a number of roles on the battlefield, such as adjusting artillery fire, light scouting, observation and liaison.

It also needed the ability to handle at low altitudes and would preferably be made from all-metal components, as the fabric-covered liaison aircraft from World War II had relatively short service lives.

US Army Cessna L-19A Bird Dog of the 21st Reconnaissance Airplane Company (RAC), near Hoi An, Republic of Vietnam. (Photo Credit: reivax / Flickr CC BY-SA 2.0)

After receiving the specifications, the Cessna Aircraft Company submitted the Cessna Model 305A. Capable of a maximum speed of 150 MPH and a cruising speed of 115 MPH, and with a range of 530 miles, it was exactly what the Army was looking for. A contract was awarded for the production of the aircraft, which was given the designation of L-19A Bird Dog, and over the course of nine years, 3,431 were produced.

Service in Korea and Vietnam

As soon as it left the production line, the Cessna L-19A Bird Dog was deployed to Korea, where it flew for the US Army and Marine Corps from 1950-53. It served in a number of roles during the conflict, including training, frontline communications, artillery spotting and use as a MEDEVAC vehicle.

The Cessna L-19A Bird Dog was designated the OE-2 under the US Marine Corps. (Photo Credit: Bill Larkins / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)

By the time it was deployed for service in Vietnam in 1962, the L-19A had been re-designated the Cessna O-1 Bird Dog. As in Korea, it was flown by the Army and the Marine Corps, and also saw use by the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) and clandestine forward air controllers (FACs). Its capabilities as a short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft and its ability to fly at low altitudes and speed also afforded it use by the US Air Force.

In general, the O-1 was used for reconnaissance, radio relay, target acquisition, convoy escort, forward air control and artillery adjustment. Its maneuverability, visibility capabilities and quiet nature made it valuable to ground units, and the addition of eight unguided white-phosphorus air-to-surface rockets under the wings allowed it to engage in offensive action, when needed.

Cessna O-1 Bird Dog with a damaged wing, Bu Prang Special Forces Camp, South Vietnam. (Photo Credit: David Turnley / CORBIS / VCG / Getty Images)

Despite its success, the O-1 had its fair share of issues. Its slow speed made it vulnerable to enemy fire and, compared to newer aircraft, it had a smaller range and payload. While these problems led the Air Force to eventually switch to the twin engine North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco and Cessna O-2 Skymaster, the Army retained its fleet throughout the Vietnam War, with 11 Reconnaissance Airplane Companies (RACs) deployed.

The Cessna O-1 Bird Dog moves into civilian use

The Cessna O-1 Bird Dog was officially retired by the US military in 1974, with the remaining units sold as surplus. Many of the aircraft that had served with the Air Force were turned over to the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) for domestic search and rescue (SAR) operations.

Unfortunately, very few of the CAP pilots had experience as military aviators, meaning they encountered a number of issues when attempting to fly the aircraft. As a result, the O-1 was eventually replaced by the Cessna 172 and 182.

Republic of Vietnam Air Force-flown Cessna O-1 Bird Dog landing on the flight deck of the USS Midway (CV-41) during Operation Frequent Wind. (Photo Credit: USS Midway / Naval Aviation News / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Following their service with the Civil Air Patrol, a number of O-1s were sold to private aviators or delivered to museums, where they remain on display. Others were purchased by glider clubs across the United States for use as towing aircraft.

Known as the fastest manned rocket aircraft ever flown, the North American X-15 is an engineering marvel. It made the first manned flights to the edge of outer space and was the first aircraft to reach hypersonic speeds – that’s over five times the speed of sound. These accomplishments not only solidified its place in aviation history, but also aided in the development of a number of NASA spaceflight programs.

Development of the North American X-15

The North American X-15 was the culmination of years of work, which began in the 1940s with the Bell X-1 and continued into the ’50s. It was based on a concept study conducted for NASA‘s predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), the results of which were passed onto both the US Air Force and Navy in July 1954.

The purpose for the new aircraft was for it to accurately test the conditions future astronauts would face as the United States furthered its exploration of space. North American Aviation was tasked with designing the airframe, while Reaction Motors was charged with providing the engines, which would allow it to reach the speeds intended for such trials.

The North American X-15 was the result of years of research into rocket-powered aircraft, which had previously led to the development of the Bell X-1 in the mid-1940s. (Photo Credit: USAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The X-15 was designed to be launched from a Boeing B-52 Stratofortress mothership. Two of the bombers were used throughout the aircraft’s service – an NB-52A known as the High and Mighty One and an NB-52B named Balls 8. This would ensure the X-15 could reach an adequate base speed (500 MPH) and altitude (8.5 miles above the earth), from which its engines would engage and allow it to travel on its own steam.

The first X-15 flight took place in June 1959, and just a few months later the aircraft was officially introduced into service.

North American X-15 specs

Only three North American X-15s were produced during its years of service. The first was a single-seat, mid-wing monoplane, which featured two XLR11 liquid-propellant rocket engines capable of producing 16,000 pounds-force of thrust. These were later replaced by the XLR99, which generated a whopping 57,000 pounds-force of thrust.

Only three North American X-15s were produced over the aircraft’s service. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The aircraft’s fuselage featured rear fairings and wedge-fin stabilizers. Parts of it were covered in a heat-resistant nickel alloy known as “Inconel X,” to protect against the effects of flying so close to the edge of the earth. To keep pilots safe from such harsh conditions, the cabin was isolated from the exterior of the structure and made from aluminum.

To ensure the X-15 could be controlled in an environment without enough air for aerodynamic flight control surfaces, the Reaction Control System (RCS) was used, which could be controlled in one of two ways. If three joysticks were present in the cockpit, then the RCS was controlled by one of them. If there was only one, then an MH-96 flight control system was used, which combined those related to the aerodynamics and rockets.

The North American X-15 was launched from a Boeing B-52 Statofortress. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

As with a number of other aircraft, the X-15 also featured an ejection seat. It was designed to operate at 120,000 feet and at speeds of up to Mach 4. Upon ejection, fins were deployed, which were used until the pilots had reached a safe enough speed and altitude to deploy their parachutes.

Influence on the future of spaceflight

Upon its development, the North American X-15 was placed in a number of different scenarios. Over its nearly 10 years of service, it conducted 199 flights with 12 pilots: five from NASA, one from the Navy, five from the Air Force and one from North American Aviation. One of those to fly the aircraft was famed astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first man to walk on the moon.

The X-15 set a number of speed and altitude records over the course of the 1960s, including the still-unbroken one for the highest speed ever recorded by a crewed, powered aircraft. Air Force Maj. William J. “Pete” Knight was in the cockpit on October 3, 1967 when he hit speeds of up to 4,520 MPH – Mach 6.72 – while at an altitude of 102,100 feet.

Of the pilots who flew the X-15, eight met the Air Force’s space flight criterion by exceeding the altitude of 50 miles (264,000 feet), which qualified them as astronauts. Those who were members of the service were given their military astronaut wings, but as NASA’s pilots were considered civilians, they weren’t granted the same honor until 2005.

Astronaut Neil Armstrong was among those who flew the North American X-15. (Photo Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The X-15 was officially retired from service in December 1968, with the program deemed a success. The information gleamed from the nearly-200 flights helped NASA not only develop its Space Shuttle program, but also the famed Apollo (1961-72), Mercury (1958-63) and Gemini (1961-66) projects.

Today, the remaining X-15s can be found on display at the National Museum of the US Air Force in Dayton, Ohio and the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC.