A number of unusual aircraft have been designed over the years, and some are more questionable than others. While many never made it past the prototype phase, a number actually entered production and saw years of service, only to be replaced by those that were more reliable and practical. The following is a list of the strangest ones to ever take to the skies…Unsurprisingly, a lot of them were developed during the Second World War.
LWS-6 Żubr
PZL.30, a prototype of the LWS-6 Żubr. (Photo Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The first of two Polish aircraft on this list, the LWS-6 Żubr was a twin-engine medium bomber produced just a year before the start of the Second World War. Originally designed to be a passenger airliner, this unusual aircraft never really saw success, as another bomber built around the same time, the PZL.37 Łoś, was the preferred choice.
Flown by the Polish Air Force for training purposes, the LWS-6 featured an obsolete design that only made it useful for non-combat roles. Only 20 were produced, the majority of which fell into the hands of the Red Army and the Luftwaffe, the former of which captured four during their invasion of Poland in September 1939. Unfortunately (or not), none survived World War II.
Lockheed XFV Salmon
Lockheed XFV-1. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
That’s not a rocket you’re looking at – it’s the Lockheed XFV Salmon, an experimental aircraft designed to takeoff and land vertically. Intended to be flown by the US Navy, the plan was for the fighter to be used in the defense of convoys, but it never left the prototype phase. We’d like to say we can’t understand why, but we think the reason is pretty obvious in this instance.
Nicknamed the “pogo stick,” this unusual aircraft looks like its pilot didn’t know how to properly land it on the runway. While it underwent testing at Edwards Air Force Base, California in 1954 with the use of a temporary non-retractable undercarriage, the XFV Salmon was quickly shelved and the single flying prototype sent to Lakeland Linder International Airport in Florida, where it remains on display.
Transavia PL-12 Airtruk
Transavia PL-12 Airtruk VH-TRJ. (Photo Credit: RuthAS / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)
Despite only 118 being built during its production run, the Transavia PL-12 Airtruk has developed a cult following, largely due to its cameo in Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985). The Australian agricultural aircraft is most recognizable for its unusual design, which features a bulky cockpit that looks incredibly cramped and a long, narrow twin tail section.
The PL-12 came out of New Zealand’s need for a new aircraft whose sole job was cropdusting. Those typically used for the task were beginning to show their age, and while a handful of American designs had been imported, they were expensive to transport and maintain. We’re confused as to why this was the design that won out, but we’re happy it did, as its unusual appearance makes us incredibly happy.
Caproni Ca.60 Transaereo
Caproni Ca.60 Transaereo. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Better known as the Noviplano, the Caproni Ca.60 Transaereo was a nine-wing flying boat designed by Giovanni Battista Caproni in the early 1920s. An absolute behemoth, this unusual passenger aircraft looked more like a half-constructed apartment building than something intended to take flight.
The Noviplano was intended to carry 100 passengers on transatlantic flights and, due to its size, featured eight engines. Only one was ever built, and it underwent a handful of test flights in 1921 on Lake Maggiore. On its second, it crashed into the water, breaking up upon impact. While plans were made to rebuild, these were later canceled due to the exorbitant costs associated with doing so.
EL/M-2075 Phalcon
EL/M-2075 Phalcon equipped on a Boeing 707. (Photo Credit: Micha Sender / Airliners / Wikimedia Commons / GNU Free Documentation License 1.2)
Looking like a clown nose, the Israeli EL/M-2075 Phalcon is one of the most unusual airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) active electronically scanned array radar systems ever developed. While it’s still in service, it’s almost been made obsolete by the newer EL/W-2085 and EL/W-2090.
Introduced in 1994, it was developed to collect intelligence and conduct surveillance. The system is primarily attached to Boeing 707s, but can also be equipped to 767s and 747s. Only three are currently used worldwide: one by the Chilean Air Force and two by the Israeli Air Force.
Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger
Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger. (Photo Credit: San Diego Air & Space Museum Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Developed for use by the Luftwaffe during WWII, the Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger was a German fighter aircraft constructed primarily of wood. Not only that, its engine was mounted on top, making it appear as though it was giving its energy source a piggyback ride.
The He 162 was designed in just 90 days as a last ditch effort by the Germans to regain control of the skies. As such, it was riddled with issues, was relatively small and severely underarmed, with only two autocannons. Shortly after it entered service in April 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allied forces, meaning pilots only had to fly the unusual fighter for only a few weeks.
McDonnell XF-85 Goblin
McDonnell XF-85 Goblin. (Photo Credit: U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Conceived during WWII by McDonnell Aircraft, the XF-85 Goblin is without a doubt one of the strangest-looking fighters we’ve ever seen. During the conflict, the US Army Air Forces sent out requests for an aircraft that could deploy from the bomb bay of a Convair B-36 Peacemaker. The result was a parasite fighter that never entered production, let alone service. By the time it took its first flight, it was August 1948 and the war was long over.
When looking at the XF-85, you wouldn’t be wrong in assuming it’s missing its back half, as the fighter’s frame abruptly ends just behind the cockpit. We’re honestly having a hard time believing it could even fly properly, so we’re not surprised its development was canceled in 1949.
Looking like a bird or a sad dog with its pointed droop nose, the Tupolev Tu-144 was a supersonic airliner produced by the Soviet Union between 1967-83. Notable for being the world’s first commercial supersonic transport aircraft, it could travel at speeds of up to 1,400 MPH, which is equivalent to Mach 2.
While reliability issues and the rising cost of fuel made the Tu-144’s use as a passenger aircraft short-lived, it was later adopted by NASA for supersonic research and the Soviet space program to train pilots tasked with flying the Buran spacecraft. In all, only 16 were ever produced, with just 102 commercial flights taking place.
One of the oddest-looking aircraft on this list, the Polish PZL M-15 Belphegor was manufactured by WSK PZL-Mielec between 1976-81. It was designed for agricultural use and intended to be the successor to the Antonov An-2 and its variants, which also doubled as military transport and utility aircraft.
Three years after its first test flight in 1973, the M-15 began rolling off the production line – but not in droves. Despite initial estimates placing potential orders at over 3,000 units, only 175 were actually built. The reason for M-15’s short life? Its engine was very loud, it was unusually heavy and it could only travel 215 nautical miles. On top of all that, the aircraft was also expensive to produce.
If we’re being honest, the only interesting thing about the M-15 is that it was the world’s first (and only) jet agricultural aircraft.
Boeing X-32
Boeing X-32B. (Photo Credit: USAF / Edwards Air Force Base, California / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The newest aircraft on this list, the Boeing X-32 was designed for use by the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF), only to lose out to the Lockheed Martin X-35. Despite taking its first flight in 2000, the demonstrator’s origins date back to 1993, when the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) launched the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) project. A number of concepts were presented, including the X-32.
What makes the aircraft immediately distinguishable (and unusual) is its wide body and small wingspan, making you question how it could possibly remain stable while in the air. Following its being snubbed, the flight tested prototype of the X-32 was moved to the National Museum of the US Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, where it deteriorated after long-term exposure to the elements.
Thankfully, it has since been restored, meaning visitors can once again catch a glimpse of one of Boeing’s most unusual aircrafts.
The Blohm & Voss BV 141 was a German reconnaissance aircraft and light bomber developed in the lead up to WWII. You’ll likely do a double take upon looking at a picture of it, as its unusual asymmetrical design is definitely not something you typically see.
Designed by Richard Vogt, the BV 141 should have been riddled with issues, including the risk of rolling due to one side being longer (and presumably heavier) than the other. However, it’s said to have performed relatively well, thanks to the design of its wings. Despite this, the German Air Ministry (Reichsluftfahrtministerium) believed it to be underpowered and it wasn’t designated for full service.
Bréguet 761/763/765 Deux-Ponts
Bréguet BR.765 Deux-Ponts. (Photo Credit: RuthAS / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)
While multi-level airliners are commonplace today, back in the 1940s and ’50s, they were still relatively new. As such, their designs were pretty…Questionable. Take the Bréguet 761/763/765 Deux-Ponts, for example. Introduced in 1953, it’s pretty much the definition of unusual – and ugly.
Flying in both a civilian and military capacity, the double-decker aircraft proved to be effective and relatively safe, with the French Air Force using it to move personnel and materials to areas in the Pacific where nuclear testing was underway. Despite many viewing it favorably, it sadly wasn’t destined for long-term service and was retired in 1971. Only 20 were ever produced.
The Stone Age, a time of profound human innovation and adaptation, marked the earliest chapters of our collective history. It is an era defined by the ingenious artifacts that have survived the ravages of time, revealing the remarkable abilities of our ancient ancestors.
In this article, we embark on a captivating journey through the annals of prehistoric times, as we unveil the Top artifacts from the Stone Age. From the rudimentary yet effective tools of the Lower Paleolithic to the intricate artistry and craftsmanship of the Neolithic period, these artifacts offer a fascinating glimpse into the ingenuity, culture, and evolution of early human civilizations.
Table of Contents show
1. Handaxes
Age: Lower Paleolithic, dating back to about 1.7 million years ago.
Handaxes are iconic Stone Age tools known for their teardrop or almond shape. Crafted with a symmetrical design, they served as multipurpose tools for early humans, used for cutting, chopping, and even as weapons. Their existence across a wide geographical range suggests the transmission of knowledge and skills within ancient human communities.
2. Clovis Tools
Age: Associated with the Clovis culture during the Paleo-Indian period, around 13,000 years ago.
3. Cave Paintings
Age: Paleolithic period, ranging from about 40,000 to 14,000 years ago.
Some of the most captivating Stone Age artifacts are the intricate cave paintings found in locations like Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain. These ancient artworks provide a window into the lives and beliefs of our prehistoric ancestors. Painted on the cave walls, they depict animals, hunters, and rituals, and their vividness and detail continue to astound researchers and art enthusiasts alike.
4. Venus Figurines
Age: Predominantly from the Upper Paleolithic, around 30,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Venus figurines are small, often voluptuous female figurines carved from various materials, such as stone, ivory, and clay. These figurines are thought to represent fertility and possibly had spiritual or religious significance. Their prevalence across Europe and Asia suggests common cultural themes during this period.
5. Atlatl Spear Throwers
Age: Used in various periods of the Stone Age.
Atlatl spear throwers are an ingenious tool used to increase the range and force of a thrown spear or dart. They consist of a handle with a hook that grasps the back of the spear, effectively lengthening the arm of the thrower. This innovation allowed our ancestors to hunt and defend themselves more effectively, marking a significant development in weaponry and hunting technology.
6. Stone Adzes
Age: Used throughout the Stone Age, with variations over time.
Stone adzes were versatile tools used for cutting and shaping wood, making them essential for crafting shelters, boats, and other wooden objects. These artifacts demonstrate the ingenuity of Stone Age people in adapting natural materials to suit their needs.
7. Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave Art
Age: Predominantly from the Paleolithic period, approximately 36,000 years ago.
The Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc cave in France is renowned for its stunning prehistoric artwork. The cave’s walls are adorned with intricate depictions of animals, including mammoths, lions, and rhinoceroses. The exquisite detail and quality of this art offer a rare glimpse into the artistic prowess of our ancient ancestors.
8. Ötzi the Iceman’s Tools
Age: Dating back to around 3,300 BCE (Copper Age/Neolithic).
Ötzi, the well-preserved mummy discovered in the Alps, offers a unique window into the life of an ancient individual. Alongside Ötzi, his tools and clothing were remarkably preserved, providing insights into his daily life. These artifacts include a copper axe, clothing made of various materials, and a quiver with arrows, shedding light on the technology and skills of the Neolithic period.
9. Stone Henges
Age: Primarily constructed during the Neolithic period, around 2,500 to 2,000 BCE.
Stone Henge, one of the world’s most famous megalithic monuments, is located in England. Comprising massive stone monoliths arranged in circular patterns, these henges are believed to have had religious or astronomical significance. The construction of such colossal stone monuments without modern machinery remains a testament to the engineering prowess of Stone Age communities.
10. Stone Age Pottery
Age: Pottery production evolved over time, starting in the Neolithic period.
The advent of pottery marked a significant development in the history of human technology. Early pottery from the Stone Age served various purposes, from cooking and storage to ritual and trade. The craft of pottery-making played a crucial role in the development of settled communities.
11. Dolmens
Age: Predominantly from the Neolithic period but found in various cultures and time periods.
Dolmens are ancient megalithic structures consisting of large stone slabs, often used for burial chambers or as religious sites. These impressive stone constructions, found in diverse parts of the world, reflect the importance of communal and spiritual practices during the Stone Age.
12. The Lion Man
Age: Created during the Upper Paleolithic period, approximately 40,000 years ago.
The Lion Man, or Löwenmensch, is a remarkable artifact made from mammoth ivory. This intricately carved figurine represents a humanoid with the head of a lion or big cat. It’s one of the earliest known examples of figurative art and showcases the artistic capabilities of Stone Age people, as well as possibly hinting at their spiritual or mythological beliefs.
13. Star Carr Headdresses
Photo Source: The British Museum
Age: From the Mesolithic period, approximately 9,000 years ago.
Star Carr, a Mesolithic archaeological site in the UK, yielded some unique artifacts, including headdresses made of red deer skulls. These headdresses are believed to have been used in rituals, demonstrating the importance of ceremonial practices in Stone Age cultures.
14. Skara Brae
Age: Neolithic period, around 3,200 BCE.
Skara Brae is a remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village on the Orkney Islands of Scotland. The stone structures of this settlement provide insights into how people lived during this era, with stone-built houses, furniture, and tools. The layout of Skara Brae is a testament to early urban planning and communal living.
15. Stone Age Jewelry
Age: Created and used throughout the Stone Age.
Stone Age jewelry includes beads, pendants, and other adornments made from materials such as bone, shell, and stone. These items served not only as personal ornamentation but also as symbols of status, trade, and possibly spiritual significance. They provide a glimpse into the aesthetic and symbolic values of ancient cultures.
16. Stone Age Canoes
The Pesse canoe is believed to be the world’s oldest known boat. It is made from a piece of trunk of the Scots pine (Pinus silvestris). With the help of fire, this piece of trunk, with the exception of the front and back ends, has been hollowed out. A thin layer of charred wood is still present in many places on the inside of this hollowed-out tree trunk. The exterior also shows clear traces of fire. |
Age: Developed during various periods of the Stone Age.
Stone Age canoes were primitive watercraft constructed from hollowed-out logs. These early boats played a vital role in fishing, transportation, and exploration. Their development represents a leap forward in human mobility and resource utilization.
17. Tumuli
Tomb of King Alyattes at Bin Tepe in Lydia, modern Turkey, built circa 560 BC | Age: Primarily associated with the Neolithic and Bronze Age, spanning several millennia.
Tumuli, also known as burial mounds or barrows, are artificial hills constructed to house the remains of the deceased. These monuments were created during various periods of prehistory and are found in different parts of the world. Tumuli offer insights into the burial practices and social structures of ancient societies.
18. Rock Art of Alta
Age: Predominantly from the Neolithic and Bronze Age, dating back thousands of years.
The Rock Art of Alta, located in Norway, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site renowned for its petroglyphs, which are carvings and paintings on rock surfaces. These depictions of animals, scenes, and symbols provide valuable glimpses into the spiritual beliefs and daily life of ancient people in the region.
19. Mehrgarh Pottery
Age: Neolithic period, around 7,000 BCE.
Mehrgarh, in present-day Pakistan, is an archaeological site where some of the earliest examples of pottery were discovered. These pots and containers represent a significant step in the development of ceramic technology and indicate the shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agriculture.
20. Tărtăria Tablets
One of the Tărtăria tablets |
Age: From the Vinča-Turdaş culture during the Neolithic period, approximately 5,300 BCE.
The Tărtăria Tablets are a set of three clay tablets found in Romania, bearing some of the earliest known examples of writing. These symbols raise questions about the development of written language and record-keeping in ancient European cultures.
21. Xaghra Stone Circle
Age: Neolithic period, around 3,600 BCE.
The Xaghra Stone Circle is a megalithic structure located in Malta. It consists of upright limestone megaliths arranged in a circular pattern. These stone circles are believed to have had ritual, astronomical, or religious significance, offering insight into the spiritual practices of Neolithic societies on the island.
22. Los Millares
A model of the prehistoric town of Los Millares, with its walls. | Age: Copper Age, around 3,500 BCE.
Los Millares is a fortified Neolithic and Copper Age settlement located in Spain. This complex site includes stone walls, towers, and a sophisticated water management system. It provides valuable information about the social organization and defense strategies of ancient European societies.
Conclusion
These remarkable relics have transported us back in time, shedding light on the ingenuity, creativity, and adaptability of our ancient ancestors.
From the rudimentary but effective Olduvai Gorge Tools to the intricate and awe-inspiring Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave Art, these artifacts have offered glimpses into the daily lives, spiritual beliefs, and technological achievements of Stone Age cultures across the globe. They represent the foundational building blocks of human civilization and stand as enduring testaments to our enduring legacy.
As we reflect on these artifacts, we’re reminded of the profound connections that bridge the chasm of time, linking us to those who crafted and used these tools, created awe-inspiring art, and left their indelible marks on history.
In the face of these ancient treasures, we are reminded of the continuum of human history, where the echoes of the Stone Age still resonate, shaping our world today.
In the heart of Italy’s capital, Rome, lies a treasure trove of history and culture that has captured the imagination of the world for centuries. Ancient Rome, with its grandeur and influence, left behind a remarkable legacy that still resonates with us today.
This article embarks on a journey through time, uncovering the most iconic and significant artifacts that offer a glimpse into the life, artistry, and engineering prowess of this remarkable civilization.
Rome, Italy
From the awe-inspiring architecture that has withstood the test of time to the everyday objects that reveal the intricacies of Roman daily life. Each of these artifacts carries within it a piece of the Roman story, from the grand spectacles of the Colosseum to the exquisite craftsmanship of Roman jewelry and pottery.
These objects, some dating back over two millennia, bear witness to the rise and fall of empires, the glory of Rome, and the enduring influence it has had on art, engineering, and culture worldwide. So, let’s embark on this journey through the annals of history and delve into the timeless artifacts that connect us to the captivating world of Ancient Rome.
1. The Colosseum: Rome’s Iconic Amphitheater
The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, stands as a symbol of grandeur and entertainment in ancient Rome. Constructed in the 1st century AD, this colossal amphitheater could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators. Its primary purpose was to host gladiatorial contests, where skilled warriors battled one another, often to the death, as well as other public spectacles, including mock sea battles and dramatic performances.
Beyond its sheer size and the brutal entertainment it hosted, the Colosseum is a testament to Roman engineering prowess. Its elliptical design, advanced use of arches and concrete, and complex network of underground passages for animals and performers make it a marvel of construction. Today, it remains an enduring symbol of Rome’s cultural and architectural legacy, drawing millions of visitors annually.
2. Roman Aqueducts: Ingenious Engineering Marvel
The Roman aqueducts are a testament to the Romans’ unmatched expertise in water supply and engineering. Rome’s population relied on these elaborate systems to provide a consistent flow of fresh water into the city. The aqueducts featured a gradient design, allowing water to flow smoothly from distant sources to urban areas.
The ingenuity lay in the aqueducts’ construction, with precisely engineered arches and tunnels. The most famous of these aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, transported water from sources over 40 miles away. These aqueducts significantly improved public health and hygiene in ancient Rome, serving as a foundational model for modern water supply systems.
3. Roman Sarcophagus – Elaborate Tombs for the Deceased
Roman sarcophagi, ornate stone coffins, were integral to ancient Roman burial practices. These elaborately carved burial containers not only served a practical purpose but also held immense cultural and artistic significance. Roman sarcophagi were meticulously crafted, often adorned with intricate reliefs and scenes from mythology, history, or the life of the deceased.
They were symbolic representations of the deceased’s journey to the afterlife, reflecting Roman beliefs and religious practices. Sarcophagi showcased the Romans’ mastery in stone carving and their ability to create visually captivating narratives. These artifacts are a rich source of historical information, shedding light on the social status, customs, and artistic sensibilities of the time.
Roman sarcophagi remain admired for their artistic craftsmanship and their ability to encapsulate the essence of Roman culture, beliefs, and the reverence for the departed.
4. Roman Roads: The Vast Network of Communication and Commerce
The extensive network of Roman roads, known as the “Viae Romanae,” facilitated not only trade but also the swift movement of Roman legions. These roads stretched across the vast Roman Empire, connecting far-flung provinces to the heart of Rome. The Roman road system is famed for its durable construction, featuring a base of concrete and stone, which allowed for rapid and reliable transit.
These roads were essential to the empire’s administration, enabling the efficient movement of goods, information, and people. The most famous of these roads, the Appian Way, played a crucial role in connecting Rome to the southern regions of Italy. The legacy of the Roman road system can still be traced in modern highways and infrastructure.
5. Pantheon: A Magnificent Temple Turned Church
The Pantheon, originally built as a temple dedicated to all the gods of ancient Rome, is a stunning architectural marvel. Constructed by Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD, it is renowned for its domed roof, an architectural feat that remained unmatched for centuries. The oculus, a circular opening at the apex of the dome, allows sunlight to filter into the interior, creating a dramatic and awe-inspiring effect.
Over time, the Pantheon was repurposed as a Christian church, preserving its remarkable structure. The Pantheon’s design served as a precursor to modern domes and influenced countless architects and builders throughout history. Its legacy continues as a place of both historical significance and architectural inspiration.
6. Roman Coins: Portraits of Art and History
Roman coins are not just currency; they are tiny, invaluable pieces of art and history. These small, circular tokens provide a window into Rome’s evolving political landscape and the fascinating images and inscriptions that adorned them. Roman coinage spans numerous periods and emperors, each leaving their distinct mark.
Roman Coins
The images on Roman coins depict emperors, deities, and important historical events. For instance, the denarius, one of the most famous Roman coins, often featured the portrait of the reigning emperor. The reverse side typically displayed symbols, achievements, or commemorations significant to that era. Roman coins, through their artistry and inscriptions, narrate the rise and fall of dynasties and reflect the evolving cultural and political identity of Rome.
7. Roman Statues: Capturing Imperators and Deities in Stone and Bronze
The art of Roman statuary is a testament to the empire’s commitment to preserving its historical and mythological figures in timeless beauty. Crafted from marble and bronze, Roman statues depicted emperors, gods, famous leaders, and revered individuals. These lifelike representations aimed to exude power, virtue, and divine connection.
Statue of Emperor Augustus
Notable examples include the Augustus of Prima Porta, a marble statue of Emperor Augustus, and the Statue of Marcus Aurelius on horseback. Each statue not only served as a tribute to its subject but also conveyed the aesthetics and values of Roman culture. Roman statues are celebrated for their realism and artistry, representing a convergence of Greek and Roman artistic influences.
8. Roman Mosaics: Masterpieces in Stone
Roman mosaics are exquisite works of art, using tesserae (small pieces of stone, glass, or pottery) to create intricate patterns, scenes, and narratives. These mosaics adorned the floors and walls of Roman homes, public buildings, and temples, offering glimpses into daily life, mythology, and history.
A Roman mosaic on a wall | CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED
One famous example is the “Alexander Mosaic” found in Pompeii, depicting the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and Darius III. Roman mosaics often featured vibrant colors and intricate details, revealing the craftsmanship and artistic prowess of the time. They provide a unique portal to the aesthetics and stories that captivated Roman culture.
9. Roman Jewelry: Adornments of Elegance and Status
Roman jewelry exemplifies the elegance, wealth, and status of its wearers. Crafted from precious metals like gold and silver, and adorned with gemstones like pearls, emeralds, and sapphires, these intricate pieces were worn by both men and women. Roman jewelry included rings, earrings, necklaces, and brooches.
Fibula (brooch) | Photo Source: Wikipedia
Notable examples include fibulae (brooches) used to fasten clothing and cameos that featured finely carved portraits or mythological scenes. Roman jewelry was not merely decorative but also symbolized social status, wealth, and individual taste. These treasures provide insights into the aesthetics and affluence of ancient Roman society.
10. Roman Pottery: Vessels of Utility and Beauty
Roman pottery represents both the utilitarian and artistic aspects of daily life in ancient Rome. These vessels, which included amphorae, plates, jars, and vessels of various shapes and sizes, were crafted from clay and used for a multitude of purposes. They were not only functional but often displayed intricate designs and decorations.
Selection of Roman pottery found in Britain | CC BY-SA 4.0 DEED
Amphorae, for example, were used for storing and transporting liquids, such as wine and olive oil. The artwork on these containers often depicted scenes from daily life, mythology, and history, making them a valuable source of cultural insight. Roman pottery also speaks to the craftsmanship and artistic sensibilities of the time, with various styles and techniques developed across the Roman Empire.
11. Roman Frescoes: Windows into Roman Aesthetics and Life
Roman frescoes are colorful and elaborate wall paintings that adorned the interiors of Roman homes and public buildings. These frescoes offer valuable insights into Roman aesthetics, culture, and daily life. Scenes from mythology, landscapes, still life, and portraiture were common subjects, creating a rich tapestry of visual storytelling.
Cubiculum (bedroom) from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor at Boscoreale | Photo Source: metmuseum.org
In the ancient city of Pompeii, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD preserved a wealth of Roman frescoes in remarkable detail. Notable examples include the Villa of the Mysteries and the House of the Vettii. These frescoes provide a window into the tastes and preferences of Roman society, revealing their appreciation for art, beauty, and narrative.
12. Trajan’s Column: A Monument to Triumph and Artistry
Trajan’s Column stands as a towering symbol of Roman victory and artistic mastery. Erected in the early 2nd century AD to commemorate Emperor Trajan’s victorious campaigns in the Dacian Wars, this intricately carved column is a unique blend of historical record and art. It features a continuous frieze spiraling around its exterior, portraying scenes from the Dacian Wars in remarkable detail.
The column’s artistic style and narrative relief work are significant achievements in Roman art and architecture. It allows us to witness the military campaigns, clothing, weapons, and fortifications of the time. Trajan’s Column is not only a testament to the power and expansion of the Roman Empire but also a masterpiece of ancient storytelling through sculpture.
13. Roman Busts: Portraits in Stone
Roman busts are sculpted portraits of notable figures, whether emperors, politicians, philosophers, or influential citizens. These intricately carved likenesses were crafted from marble or bronze and serve as remarkable historical and artistic records. Roman sculptors were masters at capturing the nuances of individual features and expressions.
These busts played a vital role in Roman culture by honoring and remembering influential personalities. Notable examples include the bust of Julius Caesar and the famous bust of Cleopatra. Roman busts enable us to connect with the faces and personalities of ancient Rome, offering a glimpse into the individuals who shaped the course of history.
14. Roman Baths: A Glimpse into Hygiene and Culture
Roman baths were integral to the daily life of ancient Romans and held great cultural significance. These bathhouses served both practical and social purposes. Public and private baths showcased the Romans’ commitment to hygiene and well-being.
Public baths, such as the Baths of Caracalla, were monumental structures with heated pools, saunas, and exercise areas. They were important social spaces, promoting interaction and relaxation. In contrast, private baths in affluent Roman homes demonstrated luxury and sophistication.
The artifacts from Roman baths include bathhouse architecture, heating systems, and bathing equipment like strigils for body cleansing. They offer insights into the Romans’ hygiene practices and their appreciation for communal and private leisure.
15. Roman Inscriptions: Words Carved in Stone
Roman inscriptions, etched in stone or cast in metal, provided a lasting way to communicate information and record significant events. These inscriptions ranged from monumental dedicatory plaques to smaller, everyday markers. They featured text in Latin or Greek and often conveyed details about public works, legal decrees, and individual achievements.
Limestone plaque with bilingual inscription | Photo Source: metmuseum.org
One of the most famous inscriptions is the “Res Gestae Divi Augusti” (The Deeds of the Divine Augustus), an autobiographical account by Emperor Augustus. It details his life, accomplishments, and the construction of numerous public buildings. These inscriptions are essential for understanding the politics, governance, and self-presentation of the Roman elite.
16. The Arch of Titus: Commemorating Victory
The Arch of Titus stands as a triumphal arch in Rome, constructed to celebrate the military victory of Emperor Titus and his brother Domitian in the sacking of Jerusalem in 70 AD. This monumental arch not only serves as an architectural masterpiece but also a historical record of a significant event in Roman history.
The Arch of Titus
The arch features detailed relief sculptures depicting the Roman soldiers’ procession with spoils from the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. This artifact commemorates Roman military might and imperial power, while also providing valuable insights into the cultural and religious aspects of the time.
17. Roman Glassware: Fragile Beauty and Utility
Roman glassware is a testament to the artistry and craftsmanship of ancient Roman glassblowers. These delicate glass vessels and objects served both functional and decorative purposes. Roman glassworkers were known for their skill in creating intricate and colorful glassware.
Roman glass from the 2nd century | Photo Source: Wikipedia
Roman glass items included drinking vessels like cups and goblets, decorative pieces like perfume bottles and vases, and even window panes. What sets Roman glassware apart is its stunning array of shapes, colors, and patterns, showcasing the Romans’ innovation in glass production.
One of the most notable types of Roman glassware is the “mosaic glass,” featuring intricate multicolored patterns reminiscent of mosaic art. Roman glassware artifacts provide insights into daily life, trade, and the artistic tastes of the time.
18. Roman Musical Instruments: Echoes of Antiquity
Roman musical instruments offer a sonic glimpse into the ancient world. The lyre and aulos were among the most iconic musical instruments of the Roman era. The lyre, a stringed instrument resembling a small harp, was popular in private and public gatherings. The aulos, a double-reeded wind instrument, was known for its use in various celebrations and performances.
Youth playing the aulos | Photo Source: Wikipedia
These instruments were not only appreciated for their musical qualities but also held cultural and social significance. They played a role in religious ceremonies, entertainment, and even military events. Roman musical instruments like the lyre and aulos offer a unique perspective on the sensory and artistic experiences of the time.
19. Roman Household Items: Everyday Life in Ancient Rome
Roman household items encompass a wide range of everyday objects that made life in ancient Rome functional and comfortable. These items included lamps for lighting, utensils for dining, and furniture for various purposes.
Silver cochlear (spoon), mid-1st century B.C. Roman | Photo Source: metmuseum.org
Roman oil lamps, for example, were not just sources of light but also had ornate designs and patterns, adding to the ambiance of Roman homes. Utensils made from materials like bronze and silver showcased the Roman commitment to both functionality and aesthetic appeal. Furniture items like couches and tables were crafted with intricate details, serving both practical and decorative purposes.
These household artifacts offer insights into the daily rituals, domestic life, and design sensibilities of ancient Romans. They reflect the blending of form and function that was characteristic of Roman culture.
20. Roman Catacombs – Subterranean Cities of the Dead
Roman catacombs are intricate underground burial networks, resembling subterranean cities of the dead. These catacombs, primarily located near Rome, served as the final resting places for early Christians during times of religious persecution.
Ancient, Roman, Catacomb
They consist of a vast labyrinth of tunnels, chambers, and niches carved into the soft volcanic rock. The catacombs are not just burial sites; they are also rich in artistic expressions, with frescoes and inscriptions that depict early Christian iconography and beliefs.
Roman catacombs are historically significant for preserving early Christian history, culture, and religious practices. These underground complexes served as places of worship, burial, and refuge for persecuted Christians. Today, they offer a fascinating glimpse into the ancient Christian community and their devotion in the face of adversity. Roman catacombs represent a unique blend of faith, art, and history hidden beneath the earth’s surface.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the artifacts from ancient Rome represent a diverse tapestry of history, culture, and craftsmanship. From the grandeur of architectural marvels like the Colosseum and Trajan’s Column to the everyday items such as lamps and utensils, these artifacts provide us with invaluable insights into the lives and achievements of the Romans.
Roman artistry, reflected in sculptures, frescoes, and glassware, demonstrates a profound appreciation for aesthetics and storytelling. Musical instruments like the lyre and aulos offer echoes of the sounds of antiquity, revealing the sensory experiences of ancient Romans. The Roman Standard Measure, exemplified by the Roman Foot, symbolizes the meticulous precision that underpinned Roman engineering and construction.
These artifacts collectively unveil the rich and multifaceted history of ancient Rome, a civilization that continues to captivate us with its enduring influence on art, culture, and innovation. They serve as windows to a world where the grandeur of empires, the intricacies of daily life, and the beauty of art all converge, leaving an indelible mark on the course of history.
In every corner of the world and throughout history, civilizations have left behind traces of their existence in the form of artifacts. These remnants offer invaluable insights into their cultures, religions, and the values held dear by their people.
From fragments of discarded pottery to exquisitely crafted artworks or even human remains, these artifacts become a focal point for researchers, who dedicate countless hours to unraveling their secrets, providing us with a wealth of historical knowledge.
For instance, the composition of centuries-old bones can unveil the dietary habits of past civilizations, shedding light on their way of life.
Once thoroughly studied, these precious artifacts find a new home in museums, where they are displayed for the public to appreciate.
While their historical significance is immeasurable, museums are often tasked with assigning a monetary value to these artifacts for insurance purposes.
In some cases, these remarkable pieces may have changed hands through purchases and sales. There are certain artifacts that hold such immense value that they stand as some of the most expensive treasures a person will ever have the privilege of witnessing.
In this compilation, we have curated a list of 15 exceptionally valuable artifacts currently on display in museums across the United States and around the world.
Each of these artifacts offers a captivating glimpse into our shared human heritage and serves as a testament to the skill, creativity, and profound historical legacy of the civilizations from which they originate.
Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘The Mona Lisa’
(image via Flickr)
The Mona Lisa, undoubtedly one of the most renowned works of art in the world, is a masterpiece that has captivated audiences for centuries.
Created by the genius mind of Leonardo da Vinci between 1503 and 1506, with subsequent work done until 1517, this iconic painting holds an esteemed place in art history.
Permanently residing in the Louvre Museum in France, the Mona Lisa attracts an astonishing number of visitors, with approximately 6 million individuals flocking to admire her enigmatic smile and captivating gaze each year.
Beyond its artistic and cultural significance, the Mona Lisa also holds remarkable monetary value. With an appraised worth of nearly $800 million, it stands as one of the most valuable paintings in the world. Its profound impact on the art world and its historical significance have contributed to its esteemed status.
Furthermore, the Mona Lisa holds the highest insurance value of any painting in history, a testament to its immense importance and the efforts made to safeguard this invaluable treasure.
The enduring allure of the Mona Lisa lies in its enigmatic qualities and the technical brilliance exhibited by Leonardo da Vinci.
The artist’s mastery of techniques such as sfumato, which creates soft transitions between colors and tones, adds depth and a sense of realism to the painting. The enigmatic s
Nestled within the esteemed halls of the British Museum, a remarkable artifact stands as a testament to the ancient world’s intellectual triumphs.
This granodiorite stone slab, bearing inscriptions, unveils a momentous decree issued in Memphis, Egypt, in the year 196 B.C.
What makes this artifact truly extraordinary is the fact that the decree is recorded in three distinct scripts: Demotic Egyptian, Greek, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Its discovery and subsequent study played a pivotal role in unraveling the enigmatic hieroglyphic script for the very first time.
The implications of deciphering hieroglyphs extend far beyond the realms of archaeology and history. The intricate inscriptions on this stone slab provided scholars with a crucial key to unlocking the secrets of ancient Egyptian civilization.
Prior to its discovery, hieroglyphs had remained an impenetrable code, confounding the minds of researchers for centuries. However, with the aid of this inscription, scholars were finally able to bridge the linguistic and cultural gaps, gaining invaluable insights into the language, customs, and beliefs of ancient Egypt.
The decipherment of hieroglyphs marked a milestone in the field of Egyptology and sparked a profound transformation in our understanding of this illustrious civilization. It paved the way for a deeper exploration of ancient Egyptian literature, history, and religious texts.
The knowledge gained from the deciphered hieroglyphs has enabled us to appreciate the vast wealth of knowledge and wisdom preserved by the ancient Egyptians, shedding light on their societal structures, religious practices, and artistic endeavors.
Today, as visitors gaze upon this granodiorite slab at the British Museum, they witness not only a relic of the past but also a testament to human curiosity, ingenuity, and the unyielding pursuit of knowledge.
The significance of this artifact transcends its physical form, embodying the power of language and its ability to connect us with civilizations that once flourished in the ancient world.
It serves as a reminder of the profound impact that deciphering hieroglyphs has had on our understanding of the past and our appreciation of the rich tapestry of human history.
The significance of the ancient biblical manuscripts discovered in the 20th century cannot be overstated. Regarded as the oldest known biblical texts, these scrolls stand as a monumental archaeological find, captivating scholars and enthusiasts alike.
The discovery of these ancient treasures has shed new light on our understanding of the Bible and its historical context.
Divided between two prestigious institutions, the scrolls are housed in both the Rockefeller Museum in East Jerusalem and the Israel Museum in West Jerusalem. Each location offers a glimpse into the rich tapestry of ancient biblical texts and the profound impact they have had on religious, cultural, and historical studies.
The scrolls found in the Rockefeller Museum and the Israel Museum are a testament to the painstaking preservation efforts and scholarly endeavors devoted to unlocking their mysteries.
These texts, written in Hebrew and Aramaic, provide valuable insights into the religious and cultural practices of ancient Israel and the surrounding regions.
They encompass a variety of biblical books, including the well-known texts such as the Book of Isaiah, Psalms, and Deuteronomy, as well as lesser-known works.
The discovery of these biblical manuscripts has transformed our understanding of biblical literature and its transmission throughout history. Scholars meticulously study these ancient texts, employing various methods to decipher and interpret their content.
The insights gleaned from these manuscripts illuminate the evolution of biblical texts, the linguistic nuances of ancient languages, and the historical context in which these writings were produced.
Beyond their scholarly value, these ancient biblical scrolls hold profound significance for believers and individuals interested in exploring their faith. They serve as a tangible link to the ancient world, providing a sense of continuity and connection to the sacred texts that have shaped religious traditions for millennia.
The archaeological find of these biblical manuscripts stands as a testament to the power of discovery and the enduring relevance of ancient texts.
As visitors stand in awe before these delicate fragments of parchment, they are transported back in time, witnessing the enduring legacy of biblical literature and its impact on human civilization.
The preservation and accessibility of these scrolls in esteemed institutions ensure that future generations can continue to explore and unravel the mysteries contained within these ancient biblical manuscripts, enriching our understanding of the past and our shared human heritage.
Among the illustrious ancient Greek sculptures, one figure reigns supreme as an embodiment of love and beauty—Aphrodite, known as Venus in Roman mythology.
This renowned sculpture, named after the island of Milos where it was unearthed, stands as a timeless masterpiece.
Permanently housed at the Louvre in Paris, the sculpture of Aphrodite captures the hearts and imaginations of all who behold her.
As viewers set their eyes upon this iconic representation, they are immediately captivated by the grace and elegance exuded by the goddess.
Crafted in exquisite detail, the sculpture radiates a sense of ethereal beauty and serenity. Aphrodite’s delicate features, her flowing drapery, and the enchanting expression on her face all contribute to the sculpture’s captivating allure.
The Milos Aphrodite holds a significant place in the annals of art history. It stands as a testament to the ancient Greeks’ mastery of sculptural techniques and their deep appreciation for the ideals of beauty and harmony.
Created during the Hellenistic period, this sculpture represents a pinnacle of artistic achievement, embodying the elegance and refinement that defined ancient Greek aesthetics.
Housed within the Louvre, one of the world’s most esteemed museums, the Milos Aphrodite continues to mesmerize visitors from across the globe.
As they stand before this timeless representation, they are transported to an era of myth and legend, where gods and goddesses roamed the ancient world.
The sculpture’s presence in the Louvre allows for a deep exploration of its artistic and historical significance, inviting visitors to delve into the rich tapestry of ancient Greek mythology and culture.
Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, holds a special place in human consciousness, transcending time and cultures. As viewers engage with the Milos Aphrodite, they are invited to contemplate the universal themes of love, desire, and the idealization of feminine beauty.
This sculpture stands as a testament to the enduring allure of Aphrodite and her lasting impact on art and human imagination.
The Milos Aphrodite serves as a cherished link to the ancient world, a reminder of the remarkable achievements of ancient Greek civilization. It stands as a testament to the power of artistic expression, capable of evoking profound emotions and inspiring awe through the ages.
In the presence of this iconic sculpture, visitors to the Louvre bear witness to the timeless allure of Aphrodite, forever captured in stone, and appreciate the enduring legacy of ancient Greek art.
Nestled within the hallowed halls of the Smithsonian Institution, the legendary Hope Diamond commands attention as one of the world’s most coveted gems.
This extraordinary gemstone, weighing a remarkable 45.52 carats and boasting a deep blue hue, is estimated to be worth an astonishing $250 to $350 million. Its exceptional beauty and immense value have made it a symbol of luxury and allure.
The journey of the Hope Diamond to its current home in the Smithsonian is a tale that adds to its mystique. In a surprising turn of events, the renowned jeweler Harry Winston, known for his extraordinary gemstone collection, casually mailed the diamond to the museum.
Enclosed within a plain brown wrapper, the precious gem traveled via registered mail, with its true identity known only to a select few.
This seemingly unassuming package belied the magnificent treasure it contained, further enhancing the intrigue surrounding the Hope Diamond.
Since finding its place in the Smithsonian’s National Gem Collection, the Hope Diamond has become a beacon for enthusiasts and curious visitors from around the globe.
Its magnetic allure draws countless visitors, making it one of the most visited museum objects in the world. People from all walks of life are captivated by the diamond’s dazzling brilliance, its deep blue depths capturing the imagination and sparking a sense of wonder.
Beyond its sheer beauty and astronomical value, the Hope Diamond holds a captivating history. Legends and tales of its supposed curse have only added to its mystique and fueled the fascination surrounding this rare gem.
As visitors stand in awe before the Hope Diamond, they become part of its illustrious narrative, connecting with the centuries of awe-inspiring stories that have accompanied this extraordinary gemstone.
The enduring popularity and universal appeal of the Hope Diamond serve as a testament to the timeless allure of precious gemstones and their ability to captivate the human spirit.
As visitors gaze upon this resplendent gem, they are drawn into a world of opulence and fascination, immersed in the brilliance and history that the diamond represents.
The Hope Diamond stands as a shining example of the remarkable treasures that grace the halls of museums, enriching our understanding of the world’s cultural and natural heritage.
Its presence at the Smithsonian continues to inspire awe, igniting a sense of wonder and reminding us of the incredible power held within the depths of the earth.
As a cherished gem of immeasurable value, the Hope Diamond invites us to explore the realms of beauty, history, and human fascination, serving as a testament to the enduring allure of the world’s most precious gems.
The allure surrounding King Tutankhamun, commonly known as King Tut, continues to captivate the world with his dazzling treasures and enigmatic legacy.
Among the remarkable artifacts associated with this young pharaoh, his casket alone holds an astounding value of approximately $13 million. This exquisite piece exemplifies the exquisite craftsmanship and opulence of ancient Egyptian art.
However, the significance of King Tut’s legacy extends far beyond the monetary value of his casket. His mummy and the relics discovered within his tomb offer an unparalleled glimpse into the grandeur and intricacies of ancient Egyptian culture.
These treasures provide a window into the beliefs, rituals, and lifestyles of a civilization that thrived thousands of years ago.
Normally housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, these precious artifacts have garnered global attention and fascination. Exhibitions featuring King Tut’s relics have traveled extensively, showcasing the splendor of ancient Egypt to international audiences.
The opportunity to witness firsthand the treasures that once surrounded the young pharaoh allows visitors to immerse themselves in the rich tapestry of ancient Egyptian history.
From intricately designed jewelry to exquisite golden funerary masks, the relics from King Tut’s tomb offer a vivid portrayal of the lavish trappings that accompanied the elite in the afterlife.
The level of artistry and attention to detail displayed in these artifacts is a testament to the skilled artisans of ancient Egypt, who dedicated their talents to creating objects of eternal beauty and significance.
Beyond their aesthetic appeal, these treasures possess immense historical and cultural value. They contribute to our understanding of the religious beliefs, burial practices, and royal customs of ancient Egypt.
The artifacts discovered in King Tut’s tomb have enriched scholarly knowledge and continue to inspire ongoing research, expanding our comprehension of this extraordinary civilization.
The international exhibitions of King Tut’s treasures have served as platforms for cultural exchange, fostering a deeper appreciation for ancient Egypt’s profound impact on world history.
The enduring fascination surrounding King Tut and the treasures from his tomb highlight the timeless allure of ancient civilizations and their enduring legacy.
As these relics continue to captivate audiences around the world, they serve as a reminder of the extraordinary achievements of ancient Egyptian culture and the indelible mark it has left on human civilization.
Through the preservation and exhibition of these treasures, the captivating story of King Tut and the splendors of ancient Egypt continue to be shared and celebrated, ensuring their legacy lives on for generations to come.
The awe-inspiring marble sculpture of David, a monumental masterpiece of Renaissance art, stands as a testament to both artistic genius and the spirit of the Republic of Florence.
Crafted by the legendary Michelangelo around the year 1500, this nude representation of the biblical hero David has become an iconic symbol of the defense of civil liberties.
As viewers lay their eyes upon this exquisite sculpture, housed within the esteemed Gallery of the Academy of Florence, they are immediately struck by the impeccable craftsmanship and the profound emotional depth captured in the stone.
Michelangelo’s David stands tall and resolute, his perfectly chiseled physique reflecting the idealized beauty of the human form. The sculptor’s meticulous attention to detail, from the intricately carved muscles to the determined expression on David’s face, evokes a sense of awe and admiration.
Beyond its aesthetic magnificence, Michelangelo’s David carries profound symbolism. In the context of the Republic of Florence, this sculpture came to represent the indomitable spirit and unwavering courage of the Florentine people in their defense of civil liberties.
David, depicted in his triumphant pose, embodies the idea of a common man rising above adversity and fighting for justice and freedom.
The cultural and historical significance of Michelangelo’s David extends far beyond the boundaries of art. It serves as a poignant reminder of the Renaissance era, a period characterized by profound intellectual and artistic achievements.
This masterpiece encapsulates the spirit of humanism, a philosophical movement that celebrated the potential and capabilities of the individual.
Housed within the Gallery of the Academy of Florence, David continues to captivate visitors from around the world. As admirers stand before this imposing sculpture, they are transported back in time, witnessing the remarkable talent and vision of one of the greatest artists in history.
The impact of Michelangelo’s David resonates through the centuries, inspiring generations of artists, scholars, and art enthusiasts.
In the presence of Michelangelo’s David, viewers are invited to contemplate the timeless themes of human strength, resilience, and the pursuit of freedom. This sculpture stands as a testament to the enduring power of art to transcend time and connect with the human experience.
Through its captivating beauty and symbolic resonance, David remains an everlasting embodiment of Renaissance ideals and a cherished treasure of the Gallery of the Academy of Florence.
The sculpted marble depiction of the Great Panathenaia stands as a testament to the artistic grandeur of ancient Greece.
Originally crafted to adorn the upper part of the Parthenon’s inner chamber, this monumental masterpiece offers a glimpse into the magnificence of the ancient world.
Spanning an impressive length of 525 feet, the sculpture boasted an astonishing display of 378 figures and deities, accompanied by over 200 intricately carved animals.
Today, fragments of this remarkable artwork can be found in two renowned museums, each housing a portion of its splendor.
The Acropolis Museum, located in Athens, proudly presents 164 feet of the Great Panathenaia frieze. Here, visitors can witness the intricate details and artistic mastery that went into the creation of this monumental sculpture.
The fragments displayed in the Acropolis Museum offer a tantalizing glimpse into the larger composition, allowing viewers to appreciate the skill and vision of the ancient craftsmen.
An additional 262 feet of the Great Panathenaia frieze can be found in the British Museum, adding to the worldwide appreciation of this extraordinary artwork.
Here, visitors are granted the opportunity to immerse themselves in the grandeur of ancient Greece, marveling at the intricately carved figures and gaining a deeper understanding of the cultural and artistic achievements of the time.
The significance of the Great Panathenaia extends beyond its sheer scale and artistic brilliance. It represents a celebration of the Panathenaic Games, one of the most important religious and athletic festivals in ancient Athens. The frieze depicts the solemn procession that took place during these games, showcasing scenes of gods, goddesses, humans, and animals, all intricately intertwined in a breathtaking display of artistry.
The fragments of the Great Panathenaia frieze preserved in these two esteemed museums offer a rare glimpse into the cultural and artistic heritage of ancient Greece.
Through these remarkable fragments, visitors are transported back in time, witnessing the reverence and devotion of the ancient Athenians to their gods and the pride they took in their cultural traditions.
The worldwide dispersal of the Great Panathenaia frieze reflects the universal significance and appreciation of ancient Greek art and culture. Despite being fragmented, these remnants serve as a reminder of the immense beauty and enduring legacy of the Parthenon and the artistic achievements of the ancient Greeks.
Through the preservation and display of these fragments, the Acropolis Museum and the British Museum contribute to the ongoing dialogue and understanding of our shared human history.
The Great Panathenaia frieze stands as a testament to the artistic genius and cultural richness of ancient Greece, captivating visitors and scholars alike, and ensuring that the legacy of this extraordinary artwork lives on for generations to come.
Babylonian Tablet
(image via Flickr)
Nestled within the esteemed halls of the British Museum, a humble clay tablet dating back 4,000 years holds a remarkable tale of discontent and frustration.
This ancient artifact, inscribed with cuneiform script, serves as the oldest known customer service complaint ever discovered. Its contents relay the dissatisfaction of a copper merchant named Nanni, hailing from the year 1750 B.C., as he expresses his grievances regarding the quality assurance and service provided by a certain individual named El-nasir.
As visitors gaze upon this humble clay tablet, they are transported back in time to the bustling world of ancient Mesopotamia. The cuneiform script, etched delicately onto the surface, tells a story of commerce and human interaction that resonates across the millennia.
Nanni’s words, preserved on this ancient medium, offer a glimpse into the daily concerns and frustrations faced by individuals engaged in business transactions even in the distant past.
The tablet not only bears witness to the intricacies of commerce in ancient Mesopotamia but also attests to the enduring nature of human nature itself. Nanni’s complaint highlights the timeless challenges of maintaining quality standards and delivering satisfactory service.
It serves as a reminder that the pursuit of excellent customer service is a concern that spans the ages and resonates with individuals from every era.
Now safeguarded within the British Museum, this ancient clay tablet stands as a testament to the ingenuity and sophistication of ancient civilizations. Its preservation offers modern-day audiences a unique opportunity to connect with the past, to witness the concerns and frustrations of individuals who lived thousands of years ago.
As this remarkable artifact joins the vast collection of historical treasures in the British Museum, it serves as a valuable reminder of the multifaceted nature of human history. From grand monuments to humble clay tablets, each piece contributes to the rich tapestry of human experience.
The 4,000-year-old complaint of Nanni, preserved on this unassuming clay tablet, invites visitors to reflect on the timeless quest for quality assurance and exceptional customer service—a quest that spans centuries and unites us with our ancestors.
The discovery of this ancient customer service complaint expands our understanding of ancient societies and their intricate systems of commerce and communication.
It reinforces the idea that even in the distant past, individuals sought a certain level of satisfaction and were willing to voice their concerns when their expectations were not met.
As visitors explore the British Museum and encounter this fascinating clay tablet, they are presented with a tangible connection to our shared human history.
It serves as a reminder that the pursuit of quality and satisfaction in business transactions is a pursuit as old as civilization itself.
Alabaster Relief from Palace of Nimrud
(image via Flickr)
The majestic relief depicting King Ashurnasirpal II, now residing within the halls of the Louvre, serves as a captivating glimpse into the grandeur of ancient Assyrian art and architecture.
Originally hailing from the palace of Nimrud in Assyria, this remarkable artwork once adorned a section of an unbaked brick wall, representing a distinctive architectural style that emerged in the 9th century B.C.
As viewers set their eyes upon this intricately carved relief, they are immediately drawn into a narrative of power, authority, and royal grandeur. King Ashurnasirpal II, a formidable ruler of the Assyrian Empire, is depicted with an aura of majesty and strength.
The relief showcases the king’s royal regalia, including his distinctive headdress and ceremonial attire, symbolizing his authority and divinely ordained role.
The relief not only celebrates the figure of Ashurnasirpal II but also serves as a testament to the artistic prowess and cultural achievements of the Assyrian civilization.
The meticulous attention to detail, the exquisite rendering of facial features, and the intricate patterns adorning the relief reflect the mastery of Assyrian craftsmen and their commitment to artistic excellence.
The palace of Nimrud, where this relief originated, was a hub of political and cultural activity during the reign of Ashurnasirpal II.
It was a testament to the Assyrian Empire’s wealth, power, and architectural ingenuity. The relief’s placement on the palace wall would have added a touch of grandeur to the surroundings, creating an awe-inspiring environment for visitors and conveying the king’s dominance and divine legitimacy.
Through its journey to the Louvre, this magnificent relief finds itself in the company of other masterpieces from around the world, forming a rich tapestry of human history and artistic achievement.
Housed within the prestigious walls of the Louvre, it continues to captivate audiences, offering an immersive experience that transcends time and connects present-day viewers with the splendor of ancient Assyria.
The relief featuring King Ashurnasirpal II stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of the Assyrian civilization, their artistic vision, and their contributions to human civilization. It invites visitors to delve into the world of ancient kings, mighty empires, and the artistic traditions that defined an era.
Through its intricate details and commanding presence, this relief showcases the brilliance of Assyrian artistry and provides a window into the rich cultural heritage of the ancient Near East.
Summary
these exceptionally valuable artifacts showcased in museums around the world offer us a window into the past, providing insights into the diverse cultures and civilizations that have shaped our world.
From Leonardo da Vinci’s enigmatic Mona Lisa to the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and King Tutankhamun’s treasures, each artifact holds immense historical, cultural, and artistic significance.
These artifacts not only serve as testaments to the skill, creativity, and profound legacy of their respective civilizations but also offer invaluable knowledge to researchers and the public alike.
Through their study and preservation, we gain a deeper understanding of the customs, beliefs, and ways of life of our ancestors.
Moreover, these artifacts transcend their physical forms and carry symbolic importance. They embody human curiosity, the pursuit of knowledge, and the power of connection across time and cultures. They remind us of our shared heritage and the enduring impact of ancient civilizations on our modern world.
As visitors stand before these remarkable artifacts, they are transported to different eras and immersed in the rich tapestry of human history.
These treasures represent a collective effort to preserve and appreciate our cultural and historical legacy, ensuring that future generations can continue to learn from and be inspired by them.
In essence, these valuable artifacts are not just objects of monetary worth, but they are guardians of our collective memory, providing a tangible link to our past and enriching our understanding of the human experience.
They remind us of the importance of preserving and celebrating our cultural heritage, fostering a sense of appreciation, curiosity, and connection that transcends time and borders.
Egypt, the land of pharaohs, pyramids, and ancient mystique, has captivated the human imagination for centuries. At the heart of this fascination are the treasures and artifacts left behind by one of history’s most remarkable civilizations.
Egyptian history stretches back over 5,000 years, and during this extraordinary journey through time, countless artifacts have been unearthed, revealing the genius, spirituality, and artistic mastery of the ancient Egyptians.
From colossal statues to finely decorated coffins, and from monumental pyramids to intricate hieroglyphs, these artifacts represent the myriad facets of a civilization that thrived along the banks of the Nile.
In this article, we embark on a mesmerizing journey back in time, as we explore “The Top 20 Ancient Egyptian Artefacts.” Each of these treasures serves as a portal into a world where art, religion, and history converged in unparalleled splendor. These artifacts include monumental structures such as the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, as well as intricate objects like the Rosetta Stone and the Book of the Dead.
From the divine guardianship of Sekhmet to the intriguing history of the Abydos King List, we’ll delve into the profound cultural and spiritual significance of each item. Join us as we uncover the enduring legacies of these ancient wonders, allowing us to piece together the intriguing puzzle of Egypt’s past.
1. The Rosetta Stone: Deciphering Ancient Egypt’s Secrets
The Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone, one of the most famous artifacts in the world, was discovered in 1799 during Napoleon Bonaparte’s Egyptian campaign by French soldiers. This invaluable artifact is believed to date back to 196 BC during the reign of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes.
What makes the Rosetta Stone exceptional is its inscriptions in three scripts: Greek, demotic, and hieroglyphics. It became the key to unlocking the mysteries of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, allowing scholars to understand this complex script for the first time.
The Stone’s discovery laid the foundation for modern Egyptology, enabling us to delve deep into the civilization’s literature, history, and culture.
2. The Great Sphinx of Giza: Guardian of the Pyramids
The Great Sphinx of Giza stands as an enduring symbol of ancient Egypt’s grandeur. Believed to have been constructed during the reign of Pharaoh Khafre around 2500 BC, this colossal statue represents a mythical creature with a lion’s body and a pharaoh’s head.
It guards the Pyramids of Giza, and its age and origin continue to captivate archaeologists and historians. Though time and erosion have eroded many details, the Sphinx’s enigmatic expression still captures the imagination, making it a testament to the architectural and artistic prowess of the ancient Egyptians.
3. The Book of the Dead: Navigating the Afterlife
The Book of the Dead | Photo Source: The British Museum
The Book of the Dead, known as “The Coming Forth by Day,” is a collection of funerary texts originating from the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC).
These texts, often inscribed on papyrus scrolls, were placed in tombs to guide the deceased through the afterlife. They contain spells, incantations, and instructions to help the soul overcome various challenges in the realm of the dead.
These texts offer a unique insight into the beliefs and rituals surrounding death and the afterlife in ancient Egypt. The Book of the Dead is a testament to the Egyptians’ profound spirituality and their quest for eternal life.
4. King Tutankhamun’s Death Mask: The Face of Royalty
Tutankhamun’s Death Mask
The discovery of King Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922 by Howard Carter ranks among the most significant archaeological finds of the 20th century.
Among the treasures that lay within the tomb was the stunning gold death mask of the young pharaoh. The mask, believed to date back to 1323 BC, is a masterpiece of artistry and craftsmanship. It adorned the mummy of King Tut and remains a symbol of the riches and splendor of ancient Egypt.
This iconic artifact, with its lifelike features and intricate detailing, provides a glimpse into the world of Egyptian royalty and their reverence for the afterlife.
5. The Narmer Palette: Celebrating Ancient Egypt’s Unification
The Narmer Palette | Photo Source: worldhistory.orgThe Narmer Palette, an iconic artifact from ancient Egypt, was discovered in Hierakonpolis (modern-day Nekhen) and is believed to date back to around 3100 BC.
It is an ancient ceremonial slate palette that commemorates the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the reign of King Narmer, also known as Menes. This unification marked a pivotal moment in Egypt’s history, leading to the birth of a centralized Egyptian state and the establishment of the pharaonic civilization.
The palette’s intricate relief carvings depict Narmer wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt and the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, symbolizing the unity of the two regions. The Narmer Palette serves as a historical milestone, shedding light on the political and cultural developments of ancient Egypt’s earliest days.
6. The Pyramids of Giza: Marvels of the Ancient World
The Pyramids of Giza, Al Haram, Egypt
The Pyramids of Giza are the most iconic and enduring architectural wonders of ancient Egypt. These colossal structures, built during the Old Kingdom period (c. 27th century BC), continue to astound and mystify people worldwide.
The most famous of these pyramids are the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, and the Pyramid of Menkaure. These monumental tombs, constructed as final resting places for pharaohs, showcase the Egyptians’ remarkable engineering and architectural skills.
The Great Pyramid, attributed to Pharaoh Khufu, is the largest and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Its precision and grandeur have made it a symbol of human ingenuity and ambition.
7. The Colossi of Memnon: Guardians of Thebes
The Colossi of Memnon are massive twin statues of Pharaoh Amenhotep III, situated in the Theban Necropolis on the west bank of the Nile. These colossal statues, each standing approximately 60 feet tall, were constructed around 1350 BC during Amenhotep III’s reign.
They were originally positioned at the entrance of Amenhotep’s mortuary temple but have since lost much of their associated structure. The Colossi of Memnon have become famous not only for their colossal size but also for a peculiar phenomenon – they produce melodic sounds at sunrise due to temperature and humidity changes. This phenomenon has contributed to their legendary status and continues to attract visitors.
8. The Statue of Anubis: Guardian of the Afterlife
Anubis, the god of the afterlife, is often depicted as a jackal or dog-headed figure. Statues of Anubis were commonly placed in Egyptian tombs to protect the deceased and guide their souls in the afterlife. These statues, often made from various materials such as wood, stone, and bronze, date back to different periods in ancient Egyptian history.
Anubis played a vital role in the mummification process, ensuring the deceased’s safe passage to the afterlife. The god’s image represents both death and the transition to the next world, emphasizing the significance of religious beliefs in ancient Egyptian culture.
These statues not only serve as a symbol of spiritual protection but also provide valuable insights into the complex funerary practices of the time, shedding light on the ancient Egyptian concept of life after death.
9. The Canopic Jars: Safeguarding the Organs of the Deceased
Canopic jars
Canopic jars are a distinctive element of ancient Egyptian funerary practices, dating back to as early as the Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC).
These ornate containers were crucial in the mummification process as they were used to hold and protect the internal organs of the deceased. Each canopic jar typically represented one of the four sons of Horus, who were guardians of the organs: Imsety (liver), Hapi (lungs), Duamutef (stomach), and Qebehsenuef (intestines).
The practice of using canopic jars persisted for millennia, showcasing the Egyptians’ reverence for the afterlife and their commitment to preserving the physical and spiritual aspects of the deceased.
10. The Abydos King List: A Glimpse into Egypt’s Pharaonic Lineage
The Abydos King List | Photo Source: lesphotosderobert.com
The Abydos King List is a priceless historical document carved into the walls of the Temple of Seti I at Abydos. Dating to the 19th Dynasty (c. 1292-1189 BC), this list provides a chronological account of Egypt’s pharaohs, beginning with the predynastic period and continuing through the early dynasties.
It is a testament to the meticulous record-keeping of the ancient Egyptians and their deep respect for the continuity of leadership. The Abydos King List has been invaluable in reconstructing the timeline of Egypt’s rulers and their dynasties, shedding light on the political and cultural evolution of this remarkable civilization.
11. The Temple of Karnak: A Monument to Divine Majesty
The Temple of Karnak is an awe-inspiring complex dedicated to various gods, with a primary focus on the deity Amun. This sprawling temple, located in Thebes (modern-day Luxor), was constructed over several centuries, beginning in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BC) and expanding through the New Kingdom.
Karnak represents a fusion of architectural styles and artistic innovations. Its grandeur is accentuated by colossal statues, towering obelisks, intricately decorated halls, and a sacred lake. It served as a center of religious worship, pilgrimage, and administrative activity.
This monumental complex stands as a testament to the religious fervor of the ancient Egyptians and their unwavering dedication to their pantheon of gods.
12. The Valley of the Kings: Royal Tombs of Eternity
Valley of the kings, Deir el-bahri, Egypt
The Valley of the Kings, situated on the west bank of the Nile near Luxor, served as the burial site for numerous pharaohs and nobles during the New Kingdom period (c. 16th-11th centuries BC).
The Valley of the Kings is renowned for its rock-cut tombs, where the pharaohs of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties were laid to rest.
It is an archaeological treasure trove, with its most famous occupant being the young Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The tombs are adorned with intricate hieroglyphs, detailed paintings, and precious artifacts, offering a remarkable insight into the religious beliefs and mortuary practices of ancient Egypt.
The Valley of the Kings, shrouded in desert solitude, is a testament to the Egyptians’ pursuit of eternal life and their determination to preserve the legacy of their rulers for all time.
13. The Step Pyramid of Djoser: The Birth of Pyramid Architecture
Pyramid of Djoser
The Step Pyramid of Djoser, situated in Saqqara near Memphis, Egypt, is one of the earliest pyramid structures in Egypt. It was designed by the legendary architect Imhotep during the 27th century BC, marking a pivotal moment in architectural history. This groundbreaking pyramid is a series of six stepped layers, resembling a colossal wedding cake, and originally stood at approximately 6 tiers high.
It served as the final resting place for Pharaoh Djoser and represents the transition from mastaba tombs to true pyramids. Imhotep’s innovative design not only signified a pharaoh’s ascent to the afterlife but also symbolized the divine attributes of the king.
14. The Temple of Luxor: A Grand Ode to the Gods
The Temple of Luxor
The Temple of Luxor, located on the east bank of the Nile in modern-day Luxor, is a vast and grand temple complex that dates back to the New Kingdom period, with construction spanning several dynasties. The temple was primarily dedicated to the god Amun, his consort Mut, and their son Khonsu.
The grandeur of Luxor is epitomized by its monumental entrance, the Avenue of Sphinxes, and its majestic obelisks. Notable pharaohs, including Amenhotep III and Ramses II, made significant additions to this magnificent temple.
Luxor was a place of worship, ritual, and celebration, and it continues to captivate visitors with its awe-inspiring architecture and the profound religious significance it held for ancient Egyptians.
15. The Beni Hasan Tombs: Windows into Daily Life
The Beni Hasan Tombs | Photo Source: egyptiancoffins.org
The Beni Hasan Tombs, a series of rock-cut tombs located in the Middle Egypt region, date back to the Middle Kingdom period (c. 2055-1650 BC).
These tombs provide invaluable insights into the daily life, activities, and social structure of ancient Egypt’s provincial elites. The tombs feature remarkable scenes and inscriptions that depict hunting, farming, fishing, and various aspects of daily life, along with detailed biographical information about the tomb’s occupants.
The art in these tombs is known for its vivid representations of life during the Middle Kingdom, giving us a unique window into the lives and aspirations of non-royal individuals in ancient Egypt.
16. The Egyptian Obelisks: Symbols of Power and Divinity
Luxor, Egypt
Egyptian obelisks are tall, slender monuments with inscriptions, often seen in pairs, that have fascinated people for thousands of years. These iconic structures are known to date back to the Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC).
Obelisks were typically constructed from a single piece of stone and were often carved with hieroglyphs honoring pharaohs and gods. They were placed in pairs at temple entrances, serving as symbols of power and divinity. The obelisk of Hatshepsut at Karnak and the obelisks in front of the Luxor Temple are renowned examples of this unique Egyptian architectural form.
These timeless monoliths continue to stand as reminders of the grandeur and spirituality of ancient Egypt, even as they grace the cityscapes of modern-day Egypt and other parts of the world.
17. The Colossal Red Granite Statue of Amenhotep III: A Monument to Majesty
Head from monumental red granite statue of Amenhotep III || Photo Source: Wikipedia
The Colossal Red Granite Statue of Amenhotep III is an imposing piece of ancient Egyptian art. It was discovered in the Theban necropolis and dates back to the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who ruled during the 14th century BC.
This immense statue, made from a single piece of red granite, stands as a testament to the grandeur and power of this pharaoh. It originally adorned his mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile in Thebes and was designed to depict the king in a seated position.
This statue, which stands at around 18 feet in height, is a striking example of ancient Egyptian sculpture, showcasing the exquisite craftsmanship of the time and the significance of monumental art in commemorating and venerating pharaohs.
18. The Sekhmet Statues: Guardians of Divine Wrath
The Sekhmet Statue | Photo Source: British Museum
Sekhmet, the lion-headed goddess of ancient Egyptian mythology, was both a protector and a bringer of divine wrath. Numerous statues of Sekhmet have been discovered throughout Egypt, with some dating back to the New Kingdom period (c. 16th-11th centuries BC).
These statues often portrayed her with a lioness head and a human body, holding a sun disk and an ankh (symbol of life). Sekhmet was associated with healing, but she was also the goddess of war and destruction.
Statues of Sekhmet were placed in temples and tombs to invoke her powers of protection and healing or to avert her anger. Her presence symbolized the balance between nurturing and fierce aspects of the divine.
19. The Coffin of Nesykhonsu: A Glimpse into the Late Period
The Coffin of Nesykhonsu | Photo Source: Cleveland Museum of Art
The Coffin of Nesykhonsu, hailing from the Late Period (c. 664-332 BC), is a finely decorated funerary coffin that was unearthed in ancient Thebes. It is an exquisite example of the craftsmanship and religious beliefs of that time.
This wooden coffin was adorned with intricate carvings and hieroglyphs, highlighting the reverence for the afterlife and the meticulous preparation for one’s journey to eternity.
The coffin of Nesykhonsu, like many others of its era, is a testament to the enduring cultural and religious traditions of ancient Egypt, offering insight into their complex mortuary practices.
20. The Shabti Figures: Servants for the Afterlife
The Shabti Figures | Phot Source: Wikipedia
Shabti figures, also known as ushabti or shawabti, are small figurines placed in tombs to serve the deceased in the afterlife. These statuettes date back to various periods of ancient Egyptian history, but they became particularly popular during the New Kingdom (c. 16th-11th centuries BC).
Shabtis were created in multiples, often numbering 365, to represent each day of the year, and were intended to perform labor for the deceased in the hereafter. The belief was that these figurines would come to life and undertake any necessary tasks, relieving the deceased from physical toil.
Shabti figures are a fascinating manifestation of the Egyptians’ spiritual commitment to the concept of an afterlife and their meticulous preparation for the eternal journey.
Conclusion
The ancient Egyptian civilization, with its rich tapestry of art, architecture, and religious practices, has left a lasting legacy that continues to captivate the world. From the grandeur of colossal statues to the intricacy of finely decorated coffins, and from the imposing presence of pharaohs to the fierce protection of lion-headed goddesses, these artifacts are more than just relics of a distant past; they are portals into a world where life and death, power and devotion, and the temporal and the eternal were intertwined.
These ancient Egyptian artifacts bear witness to a civilization that revered the afterlife, celebrated its rulers, and sought to harmonize human existence with the divine. They illuminate the profound spiritual beliefs, artistic excellence, and engineering feats of an extraordinary people. Each artifact tells a unique story of a society that left an indelible mark on the annals of history.
As we gaze upon these treasures, we are reminded that while the sands of time may have covered the ancient world, its echoes continue to resonate in these captivating relics. The enduring appeal of these artifacts serves as a testament to the enduring fascination with the land of the pharaohs, where history, art, and spirituality converged to create a civilization that still enchants and inspires us today.
**A 2000-year-old ‘hologram’ enclosed in a gold jewel **
The ring of Titus Carvilius Gemello was found on the finger of a Roman matron, the noble Aebutia Quarta, in the so-called Flavio-Trajanic tomb – now known as the “Hypogeum of Garlands” – was discovered only in the year 2000 at the Grottaferrata necropolis, near Rome.
The underground chapel contained two marble sarcophagi of excellent workmanship with relief decorations, inscribed with the names of the two deceased: Carvilio Gemello and Aebutia Quarta .
To the great surprise of the archaeologists, when the sarcophagi were open, they found that the bodies were still intact: the embalming they were subjected to allowed an extraordinary state of preservation, so much so that the remains of Carvilio became known as the ‘Mummy of Rome’.
Carvilio’s body was wrapped in a shroud and completely covered with flowers; large garlands in good condition covered the upper half of the body, one of which was placed around the head. His femur was found fractured in two places, moreover, a high percentage of arsenic in the hair was found, so that regarding the circumstances of his death both septicemia due to an injury or a fall from a horse, and poisoning were hypothesized.
Carvilio had died quite young – he was barely 18yo – while his mother Aebutia followed him a few years later, at the age of 40-45.
Aebutia’s body was barely perceptible because it was covered with a vegetal mantle made up of hundreds of small garlands; on the head was placed a well preserved wig, wrapped in a net woven with double fine gold thread ending in a braid.
On her finger was the gold ring, with a cabochon-worked rock crystal bezel, through the convex upper surface of which the bust of a male figure finely executed on a micro-relief sheet is visible.
The luminous effect of the crystal lens gives a mysterious depth to the image of the deceased. It seems that, following the loss of his beloved son, Aebutia presumably had the precious gold ring made to keep his memory alive.
The ring is on display at the Museo Archeologica Nazionale di Palestrina
Mary Beard is the best boss I’ve ever had. She was head of the Faculty of Classics at Cambridge when I worked there for a year. She welcomed me when I arrived, told people to read my then-new book (the first one, The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt), and let me get on with my job in the Museum of Classical Archaeology. Heaven.
So like any right-thinking person, I’ve been appalled by the vitriolic attacks made on her via Twitter the past week or two, after she expressed support for the way a BBC educational cartoon – yes, for children – showed a high-ranking Roman family in Britain that included a dark-skinned father and a literate mother. (Read about it in her own words here, plus lots of press coverage and some top-notch science journalism out there in response.) Both a Roman officer from Africa and a Roman woman who could read and write are unusual, but they are not unattested. Besides which, one aim was to show children today that there was diversity in the ancient world. To paint back in some of the people who have been painted out for a long time. Similar things have been done with educational material in the UK and US (maybe elsewhere, too) to ensure that ancient Egypt isn’t white-washed.
Race is a topic that invites powerful reactions, precisely because of the impact it has had and still has in our society. Throw ancient Egypt into the mix, and those reactions multiply. For one thing, Egypt is a place at the root of Judaeo-Christian origin myths: Joseph and his coat of many colours, Moses leading the Hebrews to the promised land. For another, it’s a place with undeniably awe-inspiring ancient remains: it’s hard to top the pyramids, the Sphinx, the colossi of Memnon, all lauded by Greek and Roman writers, and therefore familiar to educated Europeans for centuries now. Lay claim to your ancestors having built those, and you lay claim to ‘civilization’ itself.*
And for a third, Egypt is a place of in-betweenness, or so it seemed from Europe’s vantage point: in between Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, to use modern Western conceptions of those spaces. That makes ancient Egypt ‘unstable’, in slightly fancy academic talk. The unstable things are what everyone’s trying to prop up or topple down, over and over again, a bit like poking a bruise.
If we go back to the 18th century, we can see how race was invented to characterize physical differences between humans, and then developed in a way that supported crippling inequalities based on those perceived differences. One of the least pleasant bits of research I’ve ever done was reading a book called Types of Mankind, written by self-professed Egyptologist George Gliddon and a slave-owning doctor named Josiah Nott. It’s vile in its long-winded justification of racism, but that didn’t stop it going into eight printings in 1850s America. Nor can we dismiss people like Gliddon and Nott as cranks. Race science wasn’t a pseudo-science – a word that might seem to create some safe distance between ‘us’ in the 21st century and earlier scholars who accepted, furthered, and used its core principles. It was the real deal, and every archaeologist and anthropologist trained in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had been trained to understand the ancient past through some version of racial categorization.**
So, inevitably, to Tutankhamun. By the time the mummy was unwrapped – or rather, cut through, scraped away, and taken to pieces – the principles of racial classification were always, always applied to ancient Egyptian human remains. That meant getting a medical doctor to take a series of measurements of the skull and of major bones, too, if the body was dissected or poorly preserved within the wrappings, as Tutankhamun’s was. At the unwrapping of Tutankhamun’s mummy in November 1925, there were two medical doctors on hand to study it, Douglas Derry, professor of anatomy at the Cairo Medical School, and Saleh Bey Hamdi, its former head. Only Derry was credited on the published anatomical report, which duly reported all the skeletal measurements.^
Only two photographs of the head of Tutankhamun’s mummy were published at the time – both with the head cradled in a white cloth, which concealed the fact that it had been detached from the body at the bottom of the neck in order to remove the gold mummy mask. The cloth also conceals all the tools and detritus on the work surface, which is clear on the photographic negatives. They were printed and published cropped to the head itself with the cloth around it, as you see here:
Left profile of the mummified head of Tutankhamun, photograph by Harry Burton (neg. TAA 553), as published in The Illustrated London News, 1926.
(Personal disclaimer here: I really, really hate publishing photographs of mummies, especially unwrapped mummies, mummified body parts, and children’s mummies. I’ve done it here to make a larger point about the visualization of race – and I know these images are already circulating out there. Still, uneasy about it.)
Anyway, of the two photographs that Howard Carter released to the press and used in his own book on Tutankhamun (volume 2), there were two views, one to the front and one to show the left profile, as you see above. But photographer Harry Burton took several more photographs of the head after a little more work had been done on it – and after it had been mounted upright on a wooden plank, with what looks the handle of a paintbrush used to prop up the neck. None of these photographs were published in Carter’s (or Burton’s) lifetimes, and I don’t think they were meant to be. But clearly, from their perspective, having photographs of the head was crucial. It’s also telling that while some of the photographs show the head at near-profile or three-quarter angles, most stick to the established norms of racial ‘type’ photography: front, back, left profile, right profile.
Print, possibly from 1925, of a photograph by Harry Burton, from neg. TAA 553, (c) The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Above, an example of one of the near-profile or three-quarter angle views. As far as I can tell, this was first published, at a size even smaller than the image here, in Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt’s English-language book Tutankhamun (George Rainbird 1963) – with the paintbrush handle carefully erased. (Here, you just get my iPhone reflection.)
Print of a photograph by Harry Burton, from neg. TAA 1244, (c) The Metropolitan Museum of Art. The paintbrush handle has been masked out with tape.
It wasn’t until 1972 that most or all of the photographs of the mummy, including its head, were published in a scholarly study by F. Filce Leek, part of the Griffith Institute’s Tutankhamun’s Tomb monograph series. That included the left profile above, where masking tape was applied to the negative before printing – again, to remove the paintbrush handle.
These different stagings of the head of Tutankhamun’s mummy matter, likewise the way the photographs did or didn’t circulate, or what adaptations were deemed necessary to make them presentable for publication. Clearly, that paintbrush handle was deemed inappropriate in some way in the 1960s – just as in the 1920s and 1930s, when Carter was still writing about the tomb, he must have deemed it inappropriate to show that second set of photographs at all.
And what do they show us, these photographs? The face of Tutankhamun? The race of Tutankhamun? Or something else? Carter didn’t explicitly discuss race when he described the mummy’s appearance: he didn’t have to, because there was already a code in language to distinguish more ‘Caucasian’ bodies from more ‘Negroid’ ones (to use the most common terms deployed in late 19th-/early 20th-century archaeology). ‘The face is refined and cultured’, so the Illustrated London News reported in its 3 July 1926 edition, almost certainly closely paraphrasing or directly quoting Carter. Placed underneath the cloth-wrapped left profile (the first photo I showed above), text and picture together made it clear enough to the paper’s middle-class readers that Tutankhamun was an ancient Egyptian of more Arab, Turkish, or even European appearance than sub-saharan African. The mummy’s sunken cheekbones seem high and sharp, and the crushed nose in profile looks high-bridged and narrow.
What really interests me here, though, is what we don’t see, because we still take such photographs, and drawings, and CT-scans, and 3D reconstructions, for granted: images like these have race science at their very heart, going right back to the 18th century.^^ So when I see a photograph like this – and there are thousands of them in the annals of archaeology – I don’t see Tutankhamun, and I certainly don’t see anything refined or cultured about mummified heads. I see the extent to which the doing of race had worked its way into pretty much every corner of archaeology, especially in the archaeology of colonized and contentious lands like Egypt. Why take these photographs? I assume that in 1925, it was inconceivable not to, just as it was inconceivable not to unwrap the mummy, not to take anatomical measurements, and not to detach the head from the body and pry it out of the mask.
Pictures matter, photographs matter, and the way we use photographs and talk about photographs, those matter too. In the book I’ll be publishing next year on the photographic archive of Tutankhamun’s tomb, I go into more detail about this particular set of photographs of the mummified head. But given the controversy over race, skin colour, and DNA in Roman Britain that flared up recently, I thought I’d get back into blog writing with this example.
In our image-saturated age, we need to be even more careful about how we use historic images like these photographs. Don’t look at what they show in the picture. Look instead for what they show about the mindsets and motivations behind the taking of the picture. The legacies of race science are still with us – and if, as archaeologists, historians, or Egyptologists, we want a wider public to understand those legacies, we need much more vocal and more critical work on the history of Egyptology and the visualization of the ancient dead.
NOTES
* I talk a bit about the problem with the word ‘civilization’ in a book called (yes, the irony) Egypt: Lost Civilizations (Reaktion 2017). Scott Trafton does a fantastic job talking about how African-Americans perceived ancient Egypt in the 19th century – sometimes as their own place of origin, to take pride in a chapter of African history, but sometimes as a place of slavery, to be rejected in the struggle against slavery. His book is called Egypt Land, and I learned a lot from it. Great cover, too.
** For how race infused the study of archaeology, see Debbie Challis’s excellent The Archaeology of Race (Bloomsbury 2015), and for its impact on the study of ancient Mesopotamia, I can’t recommend Jean Evans, The Lives of Sumerian Sculpture (Cambridge UP 2012) highly enough.
^ On this exclusion, see Donald Malcolm Reid, Contesting Antiquity in Egypt (American University in Cairo Press 2015), pp. 56-8.
^^ My take on this, with lots of further references: ‘An autopsic art: Drawings of “Dr Granville’s mummy’ in the Royal Society archives’, Royal Society Notes and Records 70.2 (2016), Open Access here. There’s a vast literature on photography and race, especially in visual anthropology but also history of science/medicine. Two good starting points: Deborah Poole, Vision, Race, and Modernity (Princeton UP 1997) and Amos Morris-Reich, Race and Photography (Chicago UP 2016 – talk about having to read some stomach-churning stuff for research…).
On 14 July 2011, an article appeared in the prestigious scientific journal ‘Materials Letters’ entitled ‘Were the casing stones of Senefru’s Bent Pyramid in Dahshour cast or carved? Multinuclear NMR evidence’, which can be translated as ‘Were the casing stones of Snefru’s Bent Pyramid in Dahshour cast or carved? Multinuclear NMR evidence’.
The Bent Pyramid is also known as the False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid because of its changed angle slope.
Commissioned by Pharaoh Sneferu around 2,600 BC, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur is one of the finest examples of pyramids in ancient Egypt, because it represents a transitional phase of ancient Egyptian Pyramids.
Originally designed as a true pyramid with the steep 54-degree angle, during construction its builders decided to alter its shape, finishing it off with a much shallower able of 43 degrees, resulting in the pyramids ‘bent’ appearance we see today.
The Bent Pyramid of Dahshur is regarded as a transitional pyramid where the ancient Egyptian discarded previous step pyramid building techniques, adopting a smooth-sided pyramid shape.
The Bent Pyramid is also known as the False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid because of its changed angle slope.
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The Pharaoh who commissioned the Pyramid, Sneferu, was the man who would later provide the basic labor structure that was needed to build the most amazing pyramid Egypt has seen: The Great Pyramid of Giza, commissioned by Sneferu’s successor Khufu.
The original steepness present at the Bent Pyramid may have been an issue for its builders. Experts have put forward a theory suggesting that its extreme steepens of the angle of inclination may have led towards instability during initial construction. The terrain on top of which the pyramid was erected was also an issue for its builders. The Bent Pyramid was built on soft, silty clay.
This is most likely the reason why its builders opted to reduce its steepness, continuing the construction with a much shallower angle of 43 degrees.
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Evidence to support this idea is located not far from the Bent Pyramid. The adjacent Red Pyramid built almost immediately after the completion of the Bent Pyramid shows an angle of 43 degrees from its base.
In his 1974 book “The Riddle of the Pyramids”, Kurt Alfred Georg Mendelssohn, German-born British medical physicist who had a great passion for Egypt and pyramids, in general, postulated the idea that the change in steepness seen at the pyramid was a security precaution that resulted from the catastrophic collapse of the Meidum Pyramid while it was still under construction.
But in addition to its unusual shape and angle, the Bent Pyramid is unique in more ways than you’d probably ever imagined. It is considered one of the most unique pyramids of ancient Egypt since its original polished outer casing made of limestone remains largely intact. In fact, no other pyramid has so much of its casing stone still present.
The Bent Pyramid is also known as the False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid because of its changed angle slope.. Shutterstock.
Its name, the Bent Pyramid of Dahshur, was not used in ancient times. The ancients generally called the pyramid (translated) The)-Southern-Shining-Pyramid or Sneferu-(is)-Shining-in-the-South.
If the pyramid was completed around 2,600 BC, it means that as of writing, the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur is 4,618 years old.
The pyramid can be accessed through two distinct entrances. Each of the entrances leads to a chamber with a highly corbelled roof. The northern entrance of the pyramid leads towards a chamber that is located below ground level. Its western chamber was incorporated into the body of the pyramid itself. The Pyramid’s Eastern entrance was created extremely low on the northern side of the pyramid. Its second entrance is located high on the western face of the pyramid.
The Bent Pyramid’s complex contained a Pyramid temple of which only fragments remain today. Archeologists argue that the temple may have been similar to the one located near the Pyramid of Meidum. Two stelae lacking inscriptions have been found behind the temple.
Like many other ancient Egyptian pyramids, the Bent Pyramid of Dahshur was accompanied by a so-called satellite pyramid, erected in ancient times serving as the building where the Pharaoh’s Ka was kept. The satellite pyramid was erected around 55 meters south of the Bent Pyramid. It originally measured 26 meters in height and nearly 53 meters in length. Built of relatively thick limestone blocks, the stones were arranged in horizontal rows and then covered with fine limestone quarried at Tura.
Aircraft made their combat debut during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-12. Just a few years later, during the First World War, they appeared in much larger numbers. To be effective, they needed the ability to shoot down enemy aircraft, which is something they accomplished, in part, through the use of air gunners.
World War I: Target shooting and reconnaissance
Aviator Georges Guynemer aiming a forward-firing gun attached to a Morane-Saulnier L, 1916. (Photo Credit: Agence Rol / Gallica Digital Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Air gunners serving during the First World War were quickly trained. The process included camera guns, to see if they hit their marks, as well as paper targets, and it wasn’t long after that they took to the air in combat. These gunners performed a number of jobs outside of their primary role. They served as a second pair of eyes for pilots and were tasked with reconnaissance, keeping an eye out for enemy positions.
A number of aircraft were designed to house gunners during World War I, primarily in the nose. These included the Vickers Vimy, Martin MB-1, Caproni Ca.1 and the Handley Page Type 0. The first instances of tail gunners occurred in the Russian Empire, with the development of the Sikorsky Ilya Muromets. Another notable example of an aircraft making use of rear gunners was the Handley Page V/1500, but it wasn’t introduced until the final years of the war.
The Germans ruled the skies in the early days of WWI, thanks to the country’s technological advancements. By the end of the conflict, however, it was easy to see that Allied aircraft had caught up and were just as effective, if not more so.
World War II: Strategic bombings
German air gunner manning the nose gun turret of an aircraft. (Photo Credit: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-S52911 / Stempka / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 de)
Air gunners continued to serve during the Second World War. The strategic bombing of key enemy positions, such as ports, cities, railways and industrial areas, became much more common, and air gunners, again, served as extra eyes. The bombers tasked with performing these air raids often flew through fortified areas, so it was gunners’ task to fire back if the aircraft came under attack.
Many of the air gunners who served during the First World War worked by themselves. As bombers got bigger toward the start of World War II, however, more could fit onboard. For example, the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, fitted with 0.50 Browning M2 machine guns, could carry a number of air gunners within its crew of 10, including waist and turret gunners.
Being an air gunner was incredibly dangerous
Royal Air Force (RAF) air gunner in training, 1943. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
The job of an air gunner could be brutal at times. They were made to sit in cramped spaces on flights that lasted up to 10 hours. Hearing was also a problem, as they were often stuck with the booming sound of their aircraft’s engines in their ears. Above all, serving as an air gunner was incredibly dangerous, with tens of thousands killed over the course of the Second World War.
Along with being the most common position, serving as a tail gunner was also the most risky, as the Luftwaffe preferred to take on opposing aircraft from the rear. On top of this, there was also little protection from the elements, meaning tail gunners oftentimes suffered frostbite. Nose gunners were less common, as the feature was largely kept to multi-engine aircraft, while the majority of heavy bombers and strike aircraft featured a spot for top gunners to position themselves.
Among the most interesting – and dangerous – positions to serve in as an air gunner was in the ball turret, located underneath some American-built aircraft during WWII. Primarily constructed on B-17s and Consolidated B-24 Liberators, these cramped positions could rotate 360-degrees, allowing gunners to scour an entire area while protecting the underbelly of their aircraft.
A number of air gunners became aces
Flight Sgt. J. Morgan serving as the tail gunner onboard an Avro Lancaster. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force Official Photographer / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The names of some of US Army Air Force’s greatest WWII-era pilots are etched in memory, including Francis “Gabby” Gabreski, Gregory “Pappy” Boyington and Joe Foss. To be deemed an air ace, an aviator needed to shoot down at least five enemy aircraft. Among the air gunners with the most impressive wartime records were:
Staff Sgt. Michael Arooth of 527th Bomb Squadron, 8th Air Force – 17 victories (at least) over the course of 14 missions.
Tech. Sgt. Arthur Benko of 374th Bomb Squadron, 308th Bomber Group (Heavy) – 18 victories against the Japanese.
Staff Sgt. Donald Crossley of 333rd Bomb Squadron, 95th Bomb Group, 8th Air Force – 12 victories.
Many more air gunners achieved their fair share of kills. Many of them have been overshadowed by the exploits of fighter pilots and those manning the aircraft on which they served, but it can be argued that, without their efforts, the Allies’ success against the Axis powers would have been less than it was.
The air gunners who served in the World Wars left a lasting legacy
Ball turret beneath an aircraft. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force Official Photographer / Air Ministry Second World War Official Collection / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Throughout the course of the First and Second World Wars, air gunners were an invaluable asset. As time went on, however, technology advanced and aircraft were eventually able to fire their guns without the need for individual operators, meaning the role of air gunners became less necessary.
That being said, the position still exists. Some crew members onboard helicopters are charged with firing weapons, although they tend to serve in other positions, such as crew chief or an observer. As well, air gunners also serve onboard gunships, such as the Lockheed AC-130. Though not directly responsible with manning the weapons, they do load ammunition and are trained to fire them if a malfunction occurs.
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