Categories
Archaeology World

Florida’s Windover Bog Bodies (8000 years old), consisting of 168 ancient individuals that were found buried at the bottom of the Windover pond.

There is a fascinating ancient underwater cemetery in Florida, North America. It is called Windover Pond, and it is 8,000-year-old. Windover Pond is older than the Great Pyramids of Egypt and can help unravel the mystery of ancient Americans. The human remains discovered in the Windover Pond can even rewrite America’s ancient history.

Windover Pond, east of Orlando, Florida was discovered by chance in 1982. When archaeologists investigated the submerged burial place, they found several well—preserved artifacts and numerous individuals buried in the peat at the bottom of the pond. Today known as the Windover bog bodies, these remains are a perplexing archaeological mystery.

This site is exceptionally unique in North America for several reasons. For one thing, the age of Windover Pond makes it an important archaeological and historical site. It is also rare to find underwater burials where artifacts and human bodies have been so excellently preserved. Perhaps, from a scientific point of view, the most significant part about this site is discovering many bog bodies. As many as 168 bog bodies were found in Windover Pont, allowing scientists to study a large sample of DNA.

There are many bog bodies in European peats, but they are not as well-preserved as the Windover bog bodies. There must have been some elements in the Windover sinkhole that helped protect the brain tissues for thousands of years.

Scientists suggest “that the slight acidity and high mineral content of the water in the sinkhole might contribute to their longevity. The preservation of brain tissues is reflected by preservation of ancient DNA, and the Windover sinkhole has yielded one of North America’s large ancient genetic populations.”

When scientists started to examine the Windover bog bodies, they were surprised to see the results. Windover Pond has “yielded dozens of extraordinary well-preserved brains with analyzable DNA. William Hauswirth of the University of Florida College of Medicine identified two mtDNA variants in the Windover material that he had not seen before.”

Some years ago, Andrew Merriwether, a geneticist of the University of Michigan, did one of the most extensive surveys of mtDNA sequences from modern and ancient native Americans.

Hauswirth contacted Merriwether and asked him to look at the DNA results.

Hauswirth learned that Merriwether had identified the same variants. Named X6 and X7, these variants “had been found in a number of modern and South American Indian populations. Their presence remains as early as those from Windover indicates that they were likely among the variants that came to the New World in the original migration.” 2

When Hauswirth extended his DNA study, “one particular element caught his attention.

At one specific locus, all except one of the individuals shared one allele in common. In many a less variable region this would not merit comment, but in this highly variable part of the genome, it did suggest a blood connection between the individuals.

Among the Windover individuals, however, two particular microsatellite lengths dominate the population, one of nine repeats and the other of fifteen repeats. Alongside the HLA evidence this was further indication of close blood ties within a population placing its dead in the pond over several centuries.”

The fact that these people were related explains why they buried their dead in the Windover Pond.

The assumption about people who lived 8,000 years ago has been that they were too nomadic to develop much of a culture and certainly couldn’t afford to care for disabled people. Still, the Windover bog bodies tell a different story.

Among the skeletons found in the Windover sinkhole archaeologists found remains “of a boy crippled from spina bifida who had to be carried around and treated for the 16 years of his life. And there was an elderly woman who also needed such long-term care. Our ancient ancestors apparently tended carefully to each other despite their constant need to keep themselves safe and alive.”

What is still unknown is where these people originally came from, and there are some theories. The DNA studies indicate these people were of Asian origin, similar to the four other major haplotypes of Native American peoples.

“Merriwether believes the first Americans came from a single population in Asia, probably in a single wave, though the wave may have lasted for some thousands of years.” According to Merriwether there is no way to tell how long the doors was open, but it is possible to “imagine it as anywhere from one big migration with lots of people to a sort of continuous migration over a long period of time.”

Merriwether explained that genetic evidence does not tell when these people arrived.

The historical and archaeological significance of Windover Pond should not be underestimated. This site has provided “unprecedented and dramatic” information about early Archaic people in Florida and could be one of the most significant archaeological sites ever excavated in North America.

Categories
Archaeology World

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

The mummy dubbed the Younger Lady was found with two other mummies in side chamber Jc of KV35. This again was a cache of looted New Kingdom mummies placed there by priests from the Third Intermediate Period. The Elder Lady and the mummy of a young boy were found next to her. The Elder Lady has now been identified as Queen Tiye, wife of AmenH๏τep III, and the young boy is suspected to either be Prince Tuthmose or Webensenu.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

All three of these mummies were completely naked, with no wrappings or coffins. Other mummies in this cache were found in labeled coffins or were given linen dockets to identify them. This of course adds to the mystery of why these three mummies were treated so differently from those in the rest of the cache. The Younger Lady is also called KV35YL or 61072, the latter of which is her accession number at the Cairo Museum.

Mummy

The mummy of the Younger Lady was originally determined to be of a man by Loret, the archaeologist who discovered the tomb. This mistake was probably made because of the mummy’s shaved head, which was typical of male Egyptians. When G. Elliot Smith later examined the mummy, he determined that it was of a female.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

She was anywhere from 25 to 35 years old when she died. She was 5 foot 2 inches tall and quite thin. The mummy is in very bad condition, though only some of the wounds were postmortem.

The only perimortem (before death) injuries are those found on the face. The Younger Lady has a gaping wound on the left side of her mouth and cheek. Some fractured facial bones are missing and a roll of resin-soaked linen was placed in the wound by the embalmers. Scholars have determined that this wound would have likely been fatal, but they have not determined how this injury occurred. It could have been the result of a heavy object hitting her face, the Younger Lady getting kicked in the face by an animal like a horse, or a chariot accident. There are also theories of deliberate violence like her being hit with an ax.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

The other injuries can be attributed to the looters. She has a small oval-shaped hole in the front of her skull and bone fragments were found within the cavity. Apparently, there was no attempt to embalm or remove her brain as it is found shrunken in her skull. The front wall of her chest is also almost entirely missing. Her heart was left in place and remains visible in her chest cavity. The diaphragm had two holes where the lungs were removed in the embalming process. In addition, her torso was packed with linen.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

Her pelvis was fractured, her legs damaged, and the front half of both of her feet are missing. She also had a double piercing on her left earlobe. Finally, her right arm is missing. Two severed arms were found in KV35 and compared with the body. One was bent at the elbow and would have laid over her chest, while the other was straight. At first, the bent arm was believed to be hers, but it was proven to be too long in relation to the attached arm. So, it is believed that the other straight arm which is of equal size is the matching arm.

There have been multiple theories about the idenтιтy of this mummy. G. Elliot Smith believed that she lived during the reign of AmenH๏τep II, but many of the more recent theories push this toward the reign of AmenH๏τep III and his son.

Marianne Luban proposed that the Younger Lady was Queen Neferтιтi in 1999, a theory that has taken a life of its own. She based this mostly on the measurements between the mummy and the statue of Neferтιтi, which were very close in size. She also pointed out the shaved head, the impression of a headband on her forehead, and the double ear piercing, all of which could point to a royal mummy.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

Joanne Fletcher supported this claim in 2003 pointing out all the same evidence that Luban did. She was actually allowed to examine the Younger Lady, which is when they found one of the detached arms wrapped in the bandages by her legs. But this was the flexed arm, which as I mentioned most likely does not belong to the Younger Lady. Fletcher used this as evidence that the mummy was royal because female royal mummies have one arm down and one arm flexed over the chest. But this is not a definitive factor as there are royal female mummies who have both arms down.

Dennis Forbes proposed that the mummy is Sitamun, a daughter of AmenH๏τep III and Tiye. This theory was based on the two other mummies found with the Younger Lady, the Elder Lady, and the young boy. Again the Elder Lady has been identified as Tiye, Sitamun’s mother, and one of the main theories for the idenтιтy of the mummy of the young boy is Prince Tuthmose, Sitamun’s brother.

The other theories are mostly based on DNA tests were conducted on the mummy. These were conducted between 2007 and 2009 for the Cairo Museum’s Family of King Tutankhamun Project. These results told us that this woman was the daughter of AmenH๏τep III and Tiye, the full sister of the mummy found in KV55, who is presumably Akhenaten, and the mother of King Tutankhamun!!

Based on the DNA results (which you can read more about here), most scholars believe that the mummy is not Neferтιтi or Kiya, another wife of Akhenaten who had been considered Tutankhamun’s mother. This is because neither woman was ever referred to as the King’s Sister or King’s Daughter. These тιтles would have been used throughout their life, even after they married. So because Neferтιтi and Kiya are never shown with these тιтles, they have been excluded as possible daughters of AmenH๏τep III and Tiye.

Sitamun, Isis, and Hennuttaneb are three daughters of AmenH๏τep III that have been considered but also excluded based on тιтles. These three daughters were married to their father at the end of his reign. And because of that prestigious тιтle, they would have become Akhenaten’s principal wife if he wanted to marry them. Meaning they would have taken precedent over Neferтιтi, who was a non-royal, which we know didn’t happen. Nebptah and Beketaten are two other daughters of AmenH๏τep III who were not known to have married their father, so they are likely candidates.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

Nonetheless, even though she was the daughter, sister, married to, and mother of a king, she does not seem to be a prominent figure in her lifetime. No inscriptions, reliefs, or statues have even been found of her. Nothing in King Tutankhamun’s vast tomb even references her. All evidence points to his mother dying before he rose to the throne and that she was a minor wife of Akhenaten. There is also a slim possibility that this woman was not married to Akhenaten, but part of his harem.

Facial Reconstruction and Controversy
In 2018, the mummy of the Younger Lady was featured on the seventh episode of the fifth season of Expedition Unknown, enтιтled “Great Women of Ancient Egypt.” Josh Gates the host and his guests were all under the presumption that the Younger Lady is the mummy of Neferтιтi, which is a belief some scholars still hold. They used the preserved remains, modern technology, and artistry to present a reconstruction of what the Younger Lady looked like. The bust was created by French paleo-artists Elisabeth Daynes.

Myѕteriouѕ Mummy – The Young Lаdy

Again, because they presumed that the mummy was of Neferтιтi, the reconstruction wore Neferтιтi’s iconic crown and broad collar. Putting aside the controversial choice to depict the mummy as Neferтιтi after the DNA tests had most likely ruled her out, the reconstruction received a lot of controversies.

Many people were upset with the color of her skin tone, mainly it being too light. The artists said that it was compared to the skin ton of modern Egyptians, but many were concerned that she was being white-washed. Some scholars agreed, but other scholars pointed out that there would have been a great mixture of races in the royal harems, including Caucasians. But the Younger Lady would have most certainly been more brown.

Aside from the royal regalia and the color of her skin, the face is claimed to be forensically accurate to the face of the Younger Lady.

Categories
World War 1

The WWI Assault That Inspired A Movie About Sgt Alvin York

Many men went up against German machine guns during the First World War and didn’t live to tell the tale. Even fewer did so directly and survived. Alvin York, on the other hand, successfully captured over 30 guns and more than 100 soldiers. As one of the conflict’s most decorated US Army soldiers, it’s no wonder Hollywood made an epic movie about Sgt York’s service.

Alvin York’s early life

Military portrait of Sgt Alvin York
Sgt Alvin York, 1919. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Alvin Cullum York was born in Fentress County, Tennessee on December 13, 1887. He came from humble beginnings, living in a two-room log cabin with his parents and 10 siblings. They subsisted through farming, hunting and fishing while their father worked as a blacksmith to earn money.

The elder York died in 1911, leaving Alvin to raise his younger siblings alongside his mother. Taking on the role of breadwinner, he went to Harriman, Tennessee to work on the railway and in logging.

Drafted into service during the First World War

Sgt Alvin York standing in uniform, with his medals pinned to his chest
Sgt Alvin York, 1918. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

This carried across into the First World War. When he was 29, the Selective Service Act was implemented, and York was required to register for the draft. He did so on June 5, 1917, claiming exemption by writing, “Don’t Want To Fight.” Should this have been approved, he would have been given conscientious objector status, but it was denied.

Read also: U.S. Navy Conducts Missile Tests In the Persian Gulf

Although he appealed, he was drafted into the Army in November 1917 while it was still under consideration. Interestingly, York denied this position later in life and in his wartime diary, despite paperwork showing he’d filed an appeal. This change of heart can likely be attributed to his lengthy conversations with Capt. Edward Danforth Jr. and Maj. Gonzalo Buxton Jr., who cited Bible passages that convinced him it wasn’t immoral to fight.

After a 10-day leave home, York returned to Company G, 328th Infantry, 82nd Division, assured that God meant for him to fight.

Alvin York’s legendary actions on the battlefield

Sgt Alvin York standing in the snow
Sgt Alvin York, 1919. (Photo Credit: Interim Archives / Getty Images)

The pacifist served during the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, where he was promoted to corporal. However, it was during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive that York led his movie-worthy attack.

Read also: St. Ermin’s Hotel: The London Hotel Favorited By Spies

On October 8, 1918, York’s battalion was charged with taking the German position near Hill 223, just north of Chatel-Chéhéry, France. This was no easy task, due to the heavy machine gun fire. As he later recalled, “Our boys just went down like the long grass before the mowing machine at home.”

York and 17 other men snuck behind German lines, only for nine soldiers and one officer to be taken out after capturing a small group of prisoners. As the shooting continued, York led the remaining contingent in returning fire with the Germans’ own machine guns. He supposedly used his hunting skills to creep up and try to take one of the weapons alone. While holding the position, a German officer led a small group to his location, but York quickly dispatched them with his pistol.

An instant hero

Sgt Alvin York standing outside with his mother
Sgt Alvin York with his mother after World War I. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

It wasn’t until Imperial German Army First Lt. Paul Jürgen Vollmer tried unsuccessfully to take him out that York received an incredible offer. Vollmer had sustained heavy losses and offered to surrender his battalion of 90 men to York, who gladly accepted. While marching back to the American lines, he accepted more surrenders.

Upon his return, Brig. Gen. Julia Lindsey quipped, “Well York, I hear you have captured the whole German Army.” He replied, “No sir. I only got 132.”

York was quickly promoted to sergeant and awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. This was upgraded a few months later to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him by Gen. John Pershing. He was also awarded the Croix de Guerre, the Médaille Militaire and Legion of Honor from the French; the Croce al Merito di Guerra from the Italians; and the Montenegro War Medal.
By the war’s end, York had received almost 50 different decorations for his actions.

Returning home to Tennessee

Sgt Alvin York standing on a house deck with his mother and younger sister
Sgt Alvin York with his mother and younger sister, 1919. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Shockingly, it wasn’t until April 26, 1919 that York became an American celebrity, following the publication of an article in the Saturday Evening Post. Only a week after returning home to Tennessee, he married Gracie Williams, spurring on even more celebrations.

York never wanted to profit from his fame, refusing to be paid for many of his appearances. Instead, he used it to push for the betterment of his home state, including improving roads and education. He was a superintendent with the Civilian Conservation Corps and Cumberland Mountain State Park.

When the Second World War began, he pushed forcefully for the US to enter the conflict. He attempted to re-enlist in the Army, but was denied, due to his age and health. Instead, he was made a major with the Army Signal Corps and spent most of the conflict touring different training camps and helping raise money via bond drives.

Sgt Alvin York’s heroics were turned into a movie

Still from 'Sergeant York'
Sergeant York, 1941. (Photo Credit: arrakis / MovieStillsDB)

After his return from the First World War, journalists were eager to get their hands on York’s life story. He was happy to comply, telling it to two men in the 1920s, one of whom used it to write a biography released in 1922. Along with a fellow veteran, York turned his writing into Sergeant York: His Own Life Story and War Diary. 

Despite the persistent buzz surrounding his story, he refused to turn this work into a film – that is, until 1940.

Sgt York finally agreed to have his life made into a movie, only because he wanted to fund an interdenominational Bible school. Starring Gary Cooper as the famed soldier and with Howard Hawks as director, Sergeant York was released in 1941.
The film followed his life and heroics during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. Although it was based on York’s diary, much of the content was fictitious. Despite this, Sergeant York was incredibly popular with the public.

Alvin York’s legacy

Two graves surrounded by stones and flowers
Graves of Sgt Alvin York and his wife at Wolf River Cemetery, in Tennessee. (Photo Credit: Brian Stansberry / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 3.0)

Sergeant York was the highest-grossing movie of 1941 and was nominated for 11 Oscars, winning two. In 2008, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry. York earned $150,000 in royalties in the first two years alone, leaving him with enough money to build part of his proposed school.

Aside from this work, he raised a family of 10 children with his wife, before dying of a cerebral hemorrhage on September 2, 1964. Through his movie and in other ways, Sgt York left behind a lasting legacy. Several monuments were erected in his honor, and streets, schools and hospitals were given his name. In 2000, the US Postal Service issued a Distinguished Soldier stamp that featured York, and he has even been referenced in many songs.

It’s safe to say Sgt York, a man who dedicated himself to his community, state and country, is well remembered.

Categories
World War 1

MI5 Used Girl Guides As Spies During World War I Because Boy Scouts Gossiped Too Much

World War I was a time of immense upheaval and change. One group that played a surprisingly important role during this time was the British Girl Guides. When the conflict began, the organization quickly adapted, with many Guides volunteering their time and skills to support the war effort. This included fundraising, collecting donations, providing nursing care and even serving with Britain’s counterintelligence agency. While the Girl Guides weren’t MI5’s first choice, they were very effective.

Gossiping Boy Scouts

Two Boy Scouts boxing each other while two others watch
Boy Scouts boxing each other, 1917. (Photo Credit: Topical Press Agency / Getty Images)

At the beginning of the First World War, MI5 decided to employ the Boy Scouts. They were far from spies, but were given similar duties, such as delivering counter-espionage messages and intelligence gathering.

This might seem like a dream come true for a group of boys unable to enlist and fight, but it didn’t take long for them to get fired. Problems arose with their work, including bringing in unreliable reports and telling people about their top-secret job, which they weren’t supposed to bring up – ever.

Ultimately, MI5 made the decision to fire the Boy Scouts in September 1915. Instead, the agency hired the Girl Guides, who they believed would prove to be a much better option. As it turned out, they were right.

The Girl Guides were a much better replacement

Three Girl Scouts standing with baskets containing peach pits
Girl Scouts, the American version of the Girl Guides, collecting peach pits during the First World War. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouts, agreed with the decision. He said, “[Girls] can be trusted, better than boys, not to talk. If the character of the girl is developed, she will discipline herself not to ‘blab’ and will ‘play the game’ not for herself and her own glorification – but in the interests of her side.”

As former Director-General of MI5 Jonathan Evans explained, the Boy Scouts “proved feckless and noisy and the Girl Guides were a more reliable alternative.”

Guides between the ages of 14 and 16 who were “of good standing, quick, cheerful and willing” were hired by MI5. Their parents and troop leader had to agree. Roughly 90 worked in this capacity. Those who were successful were brought to one of the three houses used by MI5 during the war, to serve a three-month probation period.

Treaty of Versailles

Girl Guides surrounding a soldier sitting in a cart
Girl Guides with a soldier who suffered a spinal injury during the First World War, 1926. (Photo Credit: Fox Photos / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

The Girl Guides’ primary job with MI5 was as messengers. As they were carrying highly-classified documents, they had to swear not to read them when they first started their employment. Aside from physical messages, they were asked to deliver some from memory. The Guides were compensated with payments of 10 shillings a week, and they were also given lunch breaks.

They proved to be successful employees, which is part of the reason why their work didn’t cease when the conflict reached its conclusion. A select few accompanied the British delegation to France for the Paris Peace Conference. They passed messages between different individuals and ran errands.
Although it’s unclear if they were the same girls who worked as messengers, 16 senior Guiders were invited to watch the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. It wasn’t until the agreement was official that they were sent home, with very few ever talking about their experiences with MI5.
Categories
World War 1

‘Last Post’ Memorial In Ypres Undergoing Two-Year Restoration

After a century of battling the elements, the Menin Gate in Belgium is about to get some well-earned rest and recuperation. The monument dedicated to the fallen of the engagements that occurred around the Belgian city in World War I is to be shrouded in scaffolding and weather-proof wrapping for a two-year restoration project.

Three Belgian soldiers playing bugles
“Last Post” Ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

The restoration work has just started in the city, where a daily “Last Post” ceremony is held each evening, rain or shine. Traffic is halted at 8:00 PM nightly and the ceremony occurs under the middle of the arch, with the bugle calls reverberating off the stone walls and roof.

Now, it’s been moved in front of the East entrance.

Once the monument has been totally clothed in scaffolding, Camerlynck will have an extra chance to check it over, almost inch by inch!
Exterior of the Menin Gate
Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

Some parts of the memorial have weathered well, but where damage has occurred it will need to be restored or replaced. Built of limestone and brick, some materials and mortars will need to be replaced to improve general waterproofing. The roof is planned to be mostly rebuilt, becoming environmental green. This is thought to improve its life by two or three times!

One major factor that had to be addressed is that the Menin Gate is a key entryway into Ypres, so most of the work will carry on with the road still very much in use – although only one way.

The prized precious name panels made from Portland stone will certainly be one area that will be inspected in fine detail. Here, 54,586 names of the fallen, without any known grave, are inscribed. With so many names, weathering may have reduced their legibility, which is where letter-cutting mason’s will attempt to re-cut them in situ.
If necessary, whole panels could be re-cut. Although, today, that work can be completed using CAD milling machines that carve the stone using computer control. Nearby, at Arras, is a specialist facility run by the CWGC, where such machines and skills are available, if they’re required.
Man standing in front of rows of wreaths made from poppies
Wreaths laid during the “Last Post” Ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

The museum and visitors center in Arras is where you can see some of the work carried out by the CWGC, be they carpenters, metal workers or stone masons, plus the gardeners and horticultural staff who tend some of the 200 cemeteries around this immediate area of Flanders. Those looking to visit the area can prepare for their trip via Flanders’ tourism website.

All around the world, the CWGC looks after 23,000 cemeteries and war memorials. There’s such a concentration of graves in this specific region because the two World Wars fought across almost the same ground in Flanders. In WWI, there were three battles of Arras, with the last major engagement being Passchendaele.

Canadian Officer Cadets standing in uniform
Canadian Officer Cadets at the Menin Gate in Ypres, Belgium. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

Menin Gate was chosen because of the thousands of soldiers who would have passed through on their way to the battlefields in this sector called the Ypres Salient. It commemorates the Australian, Canadian, Indian, South African and British troops who died in the Salient.

British casualties prior to August 16, 1917 are listed there. During that period, some 450,000 soldiers were killed, with the battle lines moving forward and back only four miles during the whole conflict. In the latter stages, it was a muddy hell, even stopping tanks! Although, today, there are few signs of that… Just trimmed neat fields of corn and crops, with the trees and hedges fully returned.

Sarah Camerlynck standing in front of the Menin Gate
Sarah Camerlynck, site manger for the Commonwealth War Grave Commission’s (CWGC) restoration of the Menin Gate. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

Later deaths from the UK and New Zealand from after that date are named on the huge memorial at Tyne Cot. Coincidentally, it was the site that marked the furthest point reached by the Commonwealth forces in Belgium until nearly the end of the war. Kiwi casualties after August 16, 1917 are commemorated on memorials at Buttes New British Cemetery and Messines Ridge British Cemetery, all very close to Ypres.

Designed by Sir Reginald Blomfield, the memorial was unveiled by Lord Plumer on July 24, 1927.

Former bunkers still litter the landscape, and two remaining German bunkers have been included within the massive British cemetery at Tyne Cot. There are 11,961 Commonwealth servicemen from the First World War buried or commemorated in Tyne Cot, and the memorial wall bears the names of nearly 35,000 British and Kiwi soldiers, again with no known grave.
Sadly, many more gravestones carry the inscription “A Soldier of The Great War,” rather than their actual name, which is why memorials like the Menin Gate are so important.
German bunkers amid gravestones
German bunkers amid gravestones at Tyne Cot Cemetery, in Flanders. (Photo Credit: Geoff Moore / The Travel Trunk)

Some countries, like the United States, decided after the war to repatriate their fallen – and many were returned. In the end, 43,909 bodies were brought back to America. One funeral ship that docked in Hoboken, New Jersey on May 23, 1921 was met by President Warren G. Harding as he paid tribute to the 5,000 bodies that arrived onboard the USAT Wheaton.

A point worth noting is that nearly 800,000 soldiers from the UK and US died during WWI. If you watched the coronation of King Charles III on television, there were just 4,000 service personnel in that parade, meaning that 200 times that amount died during the conflict. That’s an average total of 480 deaths per day.
Categories
World War 1

The Dramatic Arrival of the German U-boat SM U-118 On a British Beach

In the aftermath of the First World War, a remarkable event unfolded in Britain, causing a stir among military and civilian circles: the unexpected arrival of the German U-boat SM U-118. The fact this once-mighty war machine was stranded on British soil (or, to be more precise, sand) was both spectacular and puzzling.

U-118 participated in the First Battle of the Atlantic, prowling the ocean as part of Germany’s formidable U-boat fleet. She sunk two British vessels – the steamer Wellington and tanker Arca – over the course of her short career, before being surrendered in Harwich by the Imperial German Navy on February 23, 1919.

The Allies intended to tow U-118 to Brest. On April 15, 1919, while journeying to the French port city, a storm struck and the U-boat broke from her towing lines. This is how she washed ashore on a beach in Hastings, Sussex. U-118 beached around 12:45 AM, right in front of the famous Queens Hotel. While efforts were made to dislodge the vessel, all were unsuccessful.

The spectacle drew massive attention, and crowds flocked to view the massive U-boat. Local authorities even began taking people on deck tours, so long as they paid a small fee. Everything they earned was used to welcome British servicemen home from the war.

These tours were quickly stopped when two of the Coast Guardsmen running them became very ill; both were dead by February 1920 from abscesses in their brains and lungs, caused by toxic chlorine gas leaking from the U-boat’s batteries.
U-118 was completed dismantled by 1921. While there are no visible remnants left on the beach in Hastings, it’s always possible that some fragments of the German vessel remain hidden beneath the sand.
Categories
World War 1

USS Recruit (1917): The Wooden Dreadnought In Manhattan’s Union Square

Amid the bustling streets of Manhattan’s Union Square in World War I, an extraordinary sight met passersby. The USS Recruit (1917), a wooden landship constructed for the US Navy, stood proudly in the heart of the area. Although it may not have sailed the high seas or braved enemy fire, this unconventional vessel served as a training tool for new recruits and increased the number of men who enlisted as part of the war effort. It only remained in place for three years, but effectively served its purpose.

Conception of the USS Recruit (1917)

Crowd gathered around the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan's Union Square
USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: Nicola-688319 / National Museum of the U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

When the United States entered the First World War, the Navy needed to recruit more men. In New York City, Mayor John P. Mitchel pledged to recruit 2,000 new sailors for the war effort, but struggled to surpass 900 volunteers.

“The recruitment numbers in 1916 had been a major embarrassment to the New York City mayor at the time, John Mitchel,” Scot Christenson, the director of communications at the United States Naval Institute, tells The New York Times. “So he realized that if he could not bring people from the middle of New York to a ship, he could bring a ship to the middle of New York.”

Sailors were stationed aboard the USS Recruit (1917)

Sailors hanging laundry on a line
Sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

As an article published in The New York Times on March 27, 1917 explains, “Measuring 200 feet from stem to stern and forty feet beam, the Recruit has been built to offer much-needed quarters for both the Navy and Marine recruiting forces.” A conning tower, two high cage masts and a fake smokestack gave the wooden battleship her realistic appearance. The vessel’s interior featured a wireless station, officer’s quarters, cabins and medical examination rooms.

One of the most integral components of the USS Recruit was that she was to operate as a fully-functioning naval ship – just on land, instead of in water. As she was a properly commissioned ship, she was put under the command of Acting Capt. C.F. Pierce, with a complement of 39 crewmen.

Everyone followed a normal routine. Sailors began their day at 6:00 AM, scrubbing the deck, doing laundry and performing other tasks expected of them. They also stood guard over Recruit, giving them a chance to interact with civilians. Her searchlights were turned on in the evening, making Manhattan feel like a great body of water.

‘Arming’ the land-based battleship

Grace Carley Harriman standing near the USS Recruit's (1917) guns with Junior Naval and Marine Scouts
Grace Carley Harriman with Junior Naval and Marine Scouts aboard the USS Recruit (1917), 1917. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)

In keeping with accuracy, the USS Recruit was “armed” with weaponry that would’ve been equipped by other ships, just all of it was made from wood. She had three twin turrets containing six imitation 14-inch guns as her main battery and 10 five-inch guns in casemates, which served as anti-torpedo boat weapons. Two one-pound saluting gun replicas were also crafted, rounding out Recruit‘s overall “armament.”

At one point during the First World War, the Women’s Reserve Camouflage Corps painted Recruit, to give the vessel a more realistic appearance.

As Christenson explains, “For part of its existence, it was painted in vivid colors of pink, green, blue, black and white, in geometric patterns – squares and rectangles. That color scheme and pattern are called dazzle camouflage, and it was commonly used back then to help disguise the size, speed and distance of a ship, which is information a submarine would need to launch a successful torpedo attack against it.”

USS Recruit (1917) hosted social events

Crowd gathered around the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan's Union Square
USS Recruit (1917) painted with dazzle camouflage. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Beyond her regular operation as a naval ship, the USS Recruit also allowed public tours. The public could walk around the vessel and get an idea of the kinds of activities performed by sailors, and they could also ask about the Navy itself. Allowing everyday citizens to immerse themselves in life aboard a battleship certainly helped raise interest in joining the war effort.

Recruit also served as a space for notable events in New York City. Liberty Bond drives were held aboard the vessel to raise funds for the war effort, and entertainment-oriented outings were held, as well, including vaudeville performances, dances and boxing matches. The ship even served as a set for the 1917 film, Over There.

Additionally, a christening was held aboard Recruit, as were patriotic speeches from organizations like the Red Cross Women’s Motor Corps.

Successfully recruiting new sailors

Sailors on the deck of the USS Recruit (1917) with a Dalmatian
US Navy sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Over the course of her time in Union Square, the USS Recruit did exactly what she was intended to; New York City’s original recruitment total of 900 multiplied drastically, thanks to the wooden battleship.

After several years of showcasing life in the Navy, the metropolitan area had managed to recruit an impressive 25,000 sailors for the service, enough to man 28 Nevada-class battleships.

USS Recruit (1917) ‘sets sail’

Crowd watching the USS Recruit (1917) be dismantled in Manhattan's Union Square
Dismantling of the USS Recruit (1917), 1919. (Photo Credit: Internet Archive Book Images / Library of Congress / Sloan Foundation / Wikimedia Commons / No Known Restrictions)

When the First World War came to an end, the USS Recruit stayed put for another two years. However, as Christenson explains, “By 1920, the United States had the largest Navy in the world in terms of sailors, and there was less of a need for them with the end of World War I.” As such, the ship’s flag was lowered on March 16, 1920, and she was decommissioned and dismantled.

At first, the city planned to rebuild Recruit in Coney Island‘s Luna Park for continued use as a recruiting depot for the Navy, but when the time came, this never happened. “The plan was to move the Recruit to Coney Island. But the cost of moving the ship ended up being greater than the value, so the ship was dismantled and the materials were likely repurposed,” Christenson says.
Unable to justify the high costs, Recruit was never reassembled. While the exact fate of her materials is unknown, it’s most likely they were dispersed and used in other local projects.
Categories
World War 1

HMS Centurion (1911): The British Dreadnought That Saw Action At Jutland and Was Purposefully Sunk After D-Day ShipsMilitary VehiclesWorld War 1World War 2

The HMS Centurion (1911) was the second of four King George V-class dreadnought battleships. She served with the Royal Navy between 1913-44, seeing action throughout the First World War, including the Battle of Jutland. During World War II, the vessel was purposefully sunk on June 9, 1944, acting as a blockship in support of the invasion of Normandy.

Design and construction of the HMS Centurion (1911)

HMS Centurion (1911) at sea
HMS Centurion (1911), 1914. (Photo Credit: Symonds & Co / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The HMS Centurion was laid down on January 16, 1911 and commissioned into the Royal Navy on May 22, 1913. Similar to the other dreadnoughts that made up the King George V-class, she had a displacement of 25,420 long tons, a length of over 597 feet, a beam of 89 feet and a draught of nearly 29 feet.

Two sets of Parsons direct-drive steam turbines, each driving two shafts, powered Centurion. These allowed the dreadnought to hit speeds of up to 21 knots, with a range of 6,310 nautical miles at 10 knots.

Service during World War I

One man holding an unexploded shell while two others stand around him
Unexploded shell from the German raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, 1914. (Photo Credit: Museum of Hartepool / Wikimedia Commons / No Restrictions)

Between July 17-20, 1914, the HMS Centurion took part in test a mobilization and was ordered to Scapa Flow with the Home Fleet, in preparation for a possible attack by the Imperial German Navy. With the outbreak of the First World War that summer, the fleet transitioned into the Grand Fleet, and Centurion joined the Second Battle Squadron.

The dreadnought spent most of the conflict in and around British waters. During the German raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, Centurion was present in the British defenses, alongside her sister ships, the HMS King George V (1911) and Ajax (1912). None of them engaged the enemy.

Centurion missed out on the Battle of Dogger Bank in 1915, but got a piece of the action at the Battle of Jutland the following year.

Battle of Jutland

HMS Queen Mary shrouded in smoke
Loss of the HMS Queen Mary during the Battle of Jutland, 1916. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The Battle of Jutland, also known as the Battle of Skagerrak, was a significant naval engagement fought between May 31-June 1, 1916, near the coast of Denmark’s Jutland Peninsula. It involved the Royal Navy’s Grand Fleet, commanded by Adm. Sir John Jellicoe, and the Imperial German Navy’s High Seas Fleet, under the leadership of Vice Adm. Reinhard Scheer.

The clash between the two was a pivotal moment in the war, as it represented an attempt by the German Navy to break the British naval blockade and gain control of the North Sea. The objective was to lure and engage portions of the Grand Fleet, in the hope of inflicting damage and gaining a strategic advantage. The British, having intercepted German radio communications, were aware of the plans and set out to intercept the High Seas Fleet.

On the afternoon of May 31, the two naval forces made contact near the coast of Denmark. The battle commenced with long-range gun exchanges between the capital ships of both fleets, with the engagement overall being characterized by its massive scale and complexity. It involved 250 ships, and both sides suffered heavy losses, with multiple vessels sunk or severely damaged.
Centurion only played a minor role in the battle. On May 31, under the command of Capt. Sir Michael Culme-Seymour, she fired four salvos at the German battlecruiser SMS Lützow. The HMS Orion (1910) then blocked Centurion’s view, preventing her from taking further action.
Despite inflicting heavier losses on the Germans, the Grand Fleet failed to deliver a decisive victory. In terms of casualties, the British lost 14 ships and 6,094 sailors, while the Germans lost 11 vessels and approximately 2,551 men.

HMS Centurion (1911) during the interwar period

HMS Centurion (1911) anchored at sea
HMS Centurion (1911) serving as target ship, 1927-39. (Photo Credit: HM Armed Forces / Imperial War Museums / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Following the conclusion of the First World War, the HMS Centurion was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet’s Fourth Battle Squadron. In March 1920, she was put into reserve, although the dreadnought was recommissioned that August.

Returning to Britain after taking part in the Chanak Crisis, Centurion was made the flagship of the Reserve Fleet at Portsmouth. She was then sent to Chatham Dockyard, where she remained through 1925. The following year, Centurion replaced the HMS Agamemnon (1906) as the fleet’s radio-controlled target ship, but was laid up and decommissioned just a few years later in a cost-saving effort.
She was, again, recommissioned in 1933 and conducted dive bomber drills that September. The aircraft scored 19 hits out of the 48 bombs dropped.

Service during World War II

HMS Centurion (1911) anchored offshore
HMS Centurion (1911) preparing for the Fleet Review, 1924. (Photo Credit: Hulton-Deutsch Collection / CORBIS / Getty Images)

In May 1940, following the outbreak of the Second World War, the HMS Centurion was considered for refitting as an anti-aircraft cruiser for the Norwegian Campaign. Instead, she served as a repair ship, before being converted into a blockship in 1941. She was also considered for use during a naval bombardment of Libya, but this was changed when it was believed success would be slim.

Two days after acting as an escort, Centurion was attacked by nine dive bombers, which caused damage due to near misses. She fought back and successfully downed one of the enemy aircraft.

HMS Centurion (1911) during the allied invasion of Normandy

Waves crashing over the HMS Centurion (1911)
HMS Centurion (1911) serving as a breakwater off the coast of Omaha Beach, 1944. (Photo Credit: US Navy / US Navy Naval History and Heritage Command / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The HMS Centurion’s service ended on June 9, 1944, as part of the Allied invasion of Normandy. She was scuttled to serve as a breakwater as part of Mulberry A, creating sheltered water near Omaha Beach.

Mulberry Harbors were essential for the Allied invasion, prior to troops gaining access to French ports. Some historians claim the resources used to create them were wasted, particularly the sinking of old ships. That being said, these makeshift harbors brought vital supplies, equipment and soldiers ashore, aiding in the overall success of Operation Overlord.
Categories
World War 1

Walt Disney Served As An Ambulance Driver for the Red Cross During World War I

Growing up, Walt Disney had a passion for drawing. He pursued this as he matured, turning sketching into not just a career, but the biggest animation studio in the world. Disney had other passions, too, and one of those was serving his country in times of war. Unfortunately, he was either too young or too old to enlist during World War I and II, meaning he had to find other ways to contribute to the war effort.

Walt Disney’s early life

Walt Disney working at his drawing desk
Walt Disney, 1930. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

Walter “Walt” Disney was born on December 5, 1901 in Chicago, Illinois. In 1906, his family moved to Marceline, Missouri, where he spent his younger years developing his initial interest in art. While in Missouri, he received a commission to draw the horse of a retired neighborhood doctor, sparking his knack for drawing.

Disney’s father, Elias, had purchased a subscription to the Appeal to Reason newspaper, which the youngster used to practice his skills; he’d copy the front-page illustrations. Branching out and experimenting with different art mediums, Disney also tried his hand at watercolors and crayons.

Trying to enlist while underage

Walt Disney dressed in graduation regalia while holding dolls of his cartoon characters
Walt Disney, 1938. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

Walt Disney was inspired at a young age to serve his country. His older brother, Roy, enlisted in the US Navy in June 1917, which made Disney want to join the war effort even more. “He looked so swell in that sailor uniform,” he once recalled. “So I wanted to join him.” His two other older brothers, Ray and Herbert, also joined the US Army, serving as part of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF).

In an attempt to serve in WWI, a 16-year-old Disney tried to drop out of school and enlist in the Army (some sources say Navy). Unfortunately for him, he was rejected for being underage. Next, he and a friend attempted to join the Canadian Armed Forces, but his pal, Russell Maas, was rejected due to poor eyesight and Disney didn’t want to serve without him.

Undiscouraged, the young Disney forged the date of his birth on his birth certificate, so it looked like he was of age to join the Red Cross. The organization accepted him in September 1918, and he was trained as an ambulance driver.

World War I was over before Walt Disney arrived in France

Walt Disney standing with a Ford Model T ambulance
Walt Disney while an ambulance driver with the Red Cross, 1919. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Chicago Red Cross Stories / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Training for the Red Cross Ambulance Corps took place at Camp Scott, a temporary encampment at an old amusement park near the University of Chicago. To learn how to repair the ambulances, if needed, and drive on rough terrain, mechanics of the Yellow Cab Company spent weeks instructing the recruits. After this, they were subjected to two weeks of military training.

When Disney was sent to France in November 1918, the armistice had already been signed. Despite this, he made the most of his time overseas, explaining to his daughter, Diana, “The things I did during those eleven months I was overseas added up to a lifetime of experience. It was such a valuable experience that I feel that if we have to send our boys into the Army we should send them even younger than we do. I know being on my own at an early age has made me more self-reliant.”

While serving as an ambulance driver, Disney often drew cartoons on the canvas sides of the Ford Model Ts, providing humor to increase morale. He even had some published the in US Army newspaper.

Was Walt Disney dishonorably discharged?

Walt Disney speaking while sat at a table
Walt Disney, 1954. (Photo Credit: Raymond Kleboe / Picture Post / Hulton Archive / Getty Images)

A rumor has long circulated that Walt Disney was dishonorably discharged. However, this can’t be true, as he never served in the US military. He himself explained what sparked the story.

“It was in February… they sent me with a white truck,” he later recalled. “I was the driver and I had a helper. A white truck loaded with beans and sugar to the devastated area in Soissons. Well, I went out of Paris and it started to snow. I got up part way and I burned out a bearing on the truck, close to a watchman’s shed…

“So, the orders were never to leave your truck. Sugar and beans were gold,” he continued. “So the helper was supposed to go, and I’d stay with the truck. There was this little watchman’s shed… and I sat with the watchman. I sat two nights and no help came. So, the third day I was so tired, so sleepy, that I left my truck and walked up to this town and ordered a meal. Then I got a bed and I flopped into this French bed. And I slept clear around the clock.”
When Disney returned, the truck had disappeared. After hopping on a train back to Paris, he figured out what’d happened, saying, “This helper got into Paris and went out that night before he reported to the headquarters… and got drunk and he was drunk for two days. Then he finally reported and he came to find me. I was gone and he picked up the truck. So I was court-martialed.”
When stood before the board, a man he’d worked for came to Disney’s defense, exclaiming, “‘Look, this boy sat there for two nights.’ He said, ‘What happened to the helper?’ He said, ‘Have you court-martialed the helper?’ They said, ‘Yes.’ He was in the brig.” In the end, Disney was let off.

Offering support during World War II

Walt Disney standing with four US military officials in his office
Walt Disney with US military personnel, 1942. (Photo Credit: US Army / PhotoQuest / Getty Images)

Walt Disney was too old to serve in the Second World War, but he still did what he could to support the war effort. “Tomorrow will be better for as long as America keeps alive the ideals of freedom and a better life,” he once said of the conflict. To encourage these ideals, he partnered with the US military to create short films to boost morale, both at home and overseas.

During WWII, long after Disney Studios had been established, he formed the Walt Disney Training Films Unit, committing 90 percent of his workforce to developing instructional and propaganda films. Working with Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., he created the Donald Duck short film, The Spirit of ’43, which encouraged Americans to purchase war bonds.

Over the course of the conflict, Disney Studios produced 400,000 feet of military-related film material. In 1943, the short film, Der Fuehrer’s Face, was so popular that it won the Oscar for Best Animated Film. However, these came at a cost, as the studio only ever made enough revenue to cover production.
In addition to helping the war effort through film, Disney was also tasked with designing emblems for the US military. In 1942, he developed the insignia for a new fleet of US Navy torpedo boats known as “mosquito boats,” depicting a mosquito riding atop a torpedo. Disney made over 1,200 emblems for the Navy and US Army, and did so without expecting any compensation in return. They were displayed on various military vehicles, flight jackets and equipment.
Categories
World War 1

Soldiers Got Creative When Testing Out Gas Masks In WWI

World War I marked a dark era of unprecedented technological advancements in warfare. One of the most notorious was the use of poisonous gas, first used during the Second Battle of Ypres. As the conflict unfolded, chemical warfare became a harrowing reality. Mustard gas, chlorine, phosgene and other poisonous agents were deployed with devastating consequences: severe burns, blindness, suffocation and death.

Soldier wearing a Black Veil Respirator
Black Veil Respirator. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / U.S. National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

This indiscriminate weapon’s deadly impact prompted the development of countermeasures. Initially, troops could only counter the effects by covering their mouths and noses with water- or urine-soaked rags, but these solutions only prevented problems caused by breathing in the gas. Military scientists and engineers scrambled to create something more reliable, leading to the gas mask.

Early gas mask designs were rudimentary, often consisting of cotton pads soaked in chemicals or simple cotton mouthpieces, such as the Black Veil Respirator. However, as the nature of chemical warfare evolved, so, too, did the designs and effectiveness of gas masks, with several models developed throughout the conflict, each seeking to enhance protection.

Given their importance, gas masks were even created for horses and dogs, two of the most commonly-found animals on the Western Front.
British soldier wearing a small box respirator
Small box respirator. (Photo Credit: Medical Services: Diseases of the War: Including the Medical Aspects of Aviation and Gas Warfare and Gas Poisoning in Tanks and Mines / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Equipping soldiers with gas masks was only one part of their use during WWI. Training programs were introduced to educate on their importance and proper use. Pamphlets were created that outlined proper procedures, and the troops were taught to react swiftly upon hearing the alarm, donning their masks within seconds to minimize gas exposure.

Regular drills were also conducted to simulate these attacks, ensuring familiarity with the equipment.

The effectiveness of gas masks forced military strategists to reconsider the efficacy of chemical weapons, and, subsequently, their use declined in later conflicts. These protective tools also paved the way for advancements in respiratory protection technology, providing a foundation for developments in civilian applications.
The lessons learned through the use of gas masks in WWI continue to shape military technology and safeguard against threats.