There’s long been an urban legend surrounding Dartmouth’s Coronation Park, which states a Royal Navy submarine is buried beneath the green space. Residents of the small British town have circulated the rumor for decades and, now, it seems that the claims may be true, according to a team of researchers from the University of Winchester.
HMS E4, an E-class submarine similar to the HMS E52. (Photo Credit: Agence Roi / Gallica Digital Library / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Coronation Park sits atop what used to be a landfill along the British coast, and first opened to the public in 1937. Through the use of ground-penetrating radar (GPR), the team from the University of Winchester were able to scan the area, to see if there actually was a Royal Navy submarine buried beneath the park.
What they found was the “vague outline of what is thought to be HMS E52.” What’s more, they also discovered evidence of a German torpedo boat destroyer, which is believed to be the SMS S24, which was given to the British following World War I.
“The ‘submarine under the park’ is a local legend, and it could make a wonderful tourist attraction if we could identify its exact location,” said Dr. Simon Roffey, Reader in Archaeology at the University of Winchester, in a press release by the Royal Navy. “We know that there was a torpedo boat there but everyone assumed that it had been moved. Maybe it was stuck fast in the mud and they just left it there.”
Dartmouth, United Kingdom. (Photo Credit: Derek Harper / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
HMS E52 was an E-class submarine that served with the Royal Navy during the First World War. Her most famous action of the conflict was the sinking of the German U-boat UC-63 near the Goodwin Sands, in November 1917. The enemy vessel had taken out 36 Allied vessels, meaning her sinking was a win for the British. Only one German crewman survived.
In January 1921, E52 was sold for scrap to Brixham Marine & Engineering Company. After being stripped, she was taken to the River Dart, where she and other vessels were supposedly used to strengthen a riverbank and create Coronation Park.
SMS S24 was a V1-class torpedo boat destroyer that entered service with the Imperial German Navy in 1913. She served as part of the German High Seas Fleet during WWI, with her most notable engagement being the Battle of Jutland. The fighting saw more than 8,000 Allied and German personnel killed, as well as the loss of several vessels.
As part of the Treaty of Versailles, S24 was given to the British, who sold her for scrap in 1920.
Coronation Park, Dartmouth. (Photo Credit: Google Earth)
For decades, locals have spoken of the buried submarine in Coronation Park, but it wasn’t until recently that a name was put to the Royal Navy vessel, thanks to Lt. Tom Kemp. This sparked the team from the University of Winchester – Roffer and Dr. David Ashy, who manages the school’s Soil Laboratory – to locate the submersible.
Teaming up with Kemp, who teaches navigation at Britannia Royal Naval College, the pair were able to focus on a particular corner of the 20,000-square-meter park where the HMS E52 was likely buried – the northeast section, to be exact. Their scans were compared to an aerial photo of Dartmouth taken in the 1920s, which shows two vessels sitting on the mudflats.
“It’s been my personal hobbyhorse for the better part of the past year,” Kemp said in the press release. “Confirming the final resting place of one of His Majesty’s Submarines – and a pretty successful one at that – would serve to remind and reiterate that our naval heritage is all around us and can often be clawed back from obscurity. Our time and energy could scarcely be better spent.”
SMS S17, a V1-class torpedo boat destroyer similar to the SMS S24. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Эскадренные миноносцы и миноносцы Германии 1871—1918 / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The team is currently seeking permission to dig small bore holes to identify a piece of equipment or metal that’s unique to the HMS E52.
As the world descended into the chaos of World War I, one man’s bravery and unwavering dedication stood out. Albert Severin Roche, known as the “First Soldier of France,” served with exceptional valor and resilience during the tumultuous years of the conflict. Delve into the extraordinary life of this unsung hero and how he almost found himself executed following a brave action.
Albert Severin Roche’s entry into the French Army
Albert Severin Roche, 1918. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Albert Roche was born into a family of farmers on March 5, 1895 in Réauville, France. Little is known about his life up until he attempted to enlist in the French Army in 1913, at 18 years old. Standing at only five feet, two inches tall, the assessment board rejected him, and he was sent back to work on the family farm.
This dismissal didn’t put Roche off trying again, and, in August 1914, he ran away from home to report at the Allan training camp. Unlike the first time, the board accepted him into the Army and assigned him to the 30th Battalion of Chasseurs.
Just because he had an assignment didn’t mean his training went well. Roche was very poorly regarded amongst his peers and superior officers, which prompted him to run away, yet again. He was immediately found and arrested as a deserter, a claim he vehemently denied, saying, “Bad soldiers are sent up there, but I want to go where we fight.”
Becoming a one-man army in Aisne
German soldiers in a trench near the Aisne River Valley, 1914. (Photo Credit: Hulton Archive / Getty Images)
Albert Roche’s punishment was being sent to the frontlines on July 3, 1915 with the 27th Battalion of Chasseurs Alpins, exactly what he’d wanted in the first place. It was there that he started making a name for himself as a one-man army.
Roche’s first notable engagement was when he neutralized a German blockhouse by sneaking along the enemy trench and throwing grenades down the chimney, where soldiers sat huddled around a stove. Many of them were killed, and the remainder surrendered to the Frenchman, assuming a larger force surrounded them. He returned with eight prisoners and their captured machine guns.
Later, when he was moved to Alsace, Roche forced an attacking group of Germans to retreat by convincing them the French garrison held strong, when, in reality, all of the men were dead, except himself.
Undertaking an incredible rescue mission
French infantry in Chemin des Dames, 1918. (Photo Credit: The Print Collector / Getty Images)
Albert Roche had many successes in battle, but there were also moments where he barely escaped. While on a reconnaissance mission, his lieutenant was wounded and the pair were captured. Somehow, Roche killed his interrogator for his weapon and escaped. Not only did he march back to the French lines carrying his wounded superior on his back, he was also shepherding 42 German prisoners.
However, the closest call Roche had came from the French. While fighting at Chemin des Dames, he saw his captain fall. Braving heavy fire, he crawled between the lines for six hours to reach him, after which it took him another four before his superior was safely passed off to medics.
Satisfied with the rescue and exhausted, Roche fell asleep, only to be awoken by a comrade on patrol. Assuming he’d fallen asleep on-duty, he was arrested on what was, at the time, an execution-able offense. There was no one to back up his story, as his captain had fallen into a coma, so his assertions weren’t believed.
Roche accepted his fate, but maintained his innocence, writing to his father, “In an hour I shall be shot, but I assure you that I am innocent.” He was found to be guilty and brought to the firing squad. Only moments before his death, a messenger arrived with notice that the captain had awoken and spoke about what Roche did, saving his life.
Albert Severin Roche and the end of World War I
Albert Severin Roche. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)
By the end of World War I, Albert Roche had earned no rank, remaining a second-class soldier. That being said, he’d amassed an impressive record. At only 23 years old, he’d taken 1,180 prisoners and was wounded nine times.
Nonetheless, Roche’s exemplary service didn’t go unnoticed. He appeared before Supreme Allied Commander Gen. Ferdinand Foch, in front of a massive crowd on November 27, 1918. The Frenchman was presented as their “liberator Albert Roche. He is the first soldier of France!”
A number of ships have fallen victim to the wicked weather of the Great Lakes over the centuries. One, the loss of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, was immortalized in the classic Gordon Lightfoot song. Several were lost on Lake Superior, including two World War I-era minesweepers, Inkerman and Cerisoles. While searching for the ships, a television host, working alongside the Great Lakes Historical Society, came across something he wasn’t expecting: the wreck of a wooden tugboat.
Expedition Unknown host Josh Gates was kayaking through Lake Superior’s Soo Locks on the lookout for the two minesweepers when his team located the wreck of Satellite, a tugboat that sunk beneath the water’s surface in 1879.
According to a press release by the Great Lakes Historical Society, the tugboat ran into difficulties while towing four barges on June 21, 1879. “One account suggests that she suffered a mechanical problem, while another says that she struck a floating log and started taking on water,” the release reads. This caused Satellite to sink, never to be seen again – that is, until 2022.
While searching alongside the R/V David Boyd and a remotely-operated underwater vehicle (ROV), the team discovered a target made from wood. As Inkerman and Cerisoles had steel hulls, it was determined the wreck, given its location, must be Satellite.
While excited about discovering what was once “one of the most beautiful vessels on the Great Lakes,” Gates left Lake Superior without locating the minesweepers. He did, however, have enough footage for Expedition Unknown, with the episode airing in June 2023.
Navarin-class minesweepers at Canadian Car & Foundry (CC&F), 1918. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Lake Superior / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Built by Canadian Car and Foundry (CC&F) via a contract from the French government, Inkerman and Cerisoles were intended to clear sea mines in the English Channel and along French coast. The latter was named for the Battle of Cérisoles in the Italian War of 1542-46, while Inkerman‘s name was derived from the 1854 Crimean War battle.
During their maiden voyage on November 24, 1918, Inkerman and Cerisoles disappeared. The minesweepers, along with a third, were traveling through Lake Superior for the Atlantic Ocean when they ran into poor weather. Fighting heavy snow, large waves and high winds, the trio lost sight of each other.
While the third vessel, Sebastopol, managed to reach safety in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Inkerman and Cerisoles vanished into thin air. Neither the vessels, nor their crews of 76 French sailors and two Canadian captains, were ever found. Along with being the last warships to disappear in the Great Lakes, both minesweepers account for the largest loss of life on Lake Superior.
Newspaper clipping about Inkerman and Cerisoles, 1918. (Photo Credit: Grand Forks Herald / Newspapers.com / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The search effort by Expedition Unknown isn’t the only one to have occurred since the original in 1918. In 2017, the National Museum of the Great Lakes conducted a month-long search near the Keweenaw Peninsula, but came up empty.
Discovery Channel’s Expedition Unknown (2015-present) investigates the world’s most enduring legends and mysteries. Among those Gates has looked into are the disappearance of Amelia Earhart, Captain Morgan’s lost gold, the infamous World War II-era gold train and Britain’s Stonehenge.
World War I witnessed the advent of mechanized warfare, with tanks, artillery and machine guns redefining the nature of combat. Amid this modernization, the role of cavalry units faced several challenges. The French cavalry, renowned for their gallantry and historical achievements, found themselves adapting to changing battlefield conditions during WWI, while simultaneously striving to remain relevant in an era dominated by trench warfare and industrialized weaponry.
Before WWI, the French cavalry boasted a storied past and were often hailed as the epitome of mounted warfare. The legacy of Napoleon Bonaparte‘s legendary horsemen still resonated within their ranks, inspiring a sense of honor and pride. Among their primary roles were reconnaissance, flanking maneuvers and engaging enemy infantry in shock charges. However, these tactics were soon tested in the brutal bloodbath that was the first large-scale conflict of the 20th century.
As the war escalated, the traditional methods of cavalry warfare clashed with the realities of modern battlefields. The emergence of trench warfare and the aforementioned widespread use of machine guns and artillery led to devastating losses for all mounted units. Open fields, once ideal for cavalry charges, became death traps, and the initial stages of the war saw several futile attempts at mounted attacks, resulting in heavy casualties and minimal gains.The above photo, taken around 1914, shows a group of French lancers prepared to follow a group of retreating German troops. Lancers are simply a subset of cavalry, named for the lances they carried into battle while on horseback. They exemplified the early use of such troops in WWI.
In response to the harsh lessons learned in the early years of the conflict, the French cavalry underwent significant changes. They shifted their focus from large-scale charges to dismounted combat roles. By dismounting, cavalry units could better navigate the treacherous terrain, conduct stealth operations and engage in skirmishes without being vulnerable targets on horseback.
Along with their diminished role in shock combat, their skills in reconnaissance quickly became obsolete. When the war began, both the French and Germans relied on this method. As time went on and trenches were established, this quickly changed. In the first weeks of WWI, there were many instances where French cavalry failed to accurately report German movements to command. Advancements in aircraft technology soon made the aerial vehicles a more reliable way to gather this information.
Unlike the Germans, who largely got rid of their mounted troops as the war went on, the French retained them primarily for use in chasing down the enemy once lines were broken. However, the general opinion among their allies was that these cavalrymen weren’t particularly good horsemen.
One man observed, “The French cavalryman of 1914 sat on his horse beautifully, but was no horsemaster. It did not occur to him to get off his horse’s back whenever he could, so there were thousands of animals with sore backs.”
While this did change later in the conflict, perhaps simply out of necessity, it marked a big change for these mounted combatants from the beginning of the fighting.
The Northrop Grumman X-47B is an American unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV). Two were developed for use under the US Navy’s Unmanned Combat Air System (UCAS) Carrier Demonstration Program. First flying in 2011, the X-47B took part in flight testing and sea trials, which included many aviation firsts, setting the base for future unmanned naval aircraft.
Development of the Northrop Grumman X-47B
Northrop Grumman X-47B operating over the US Navy’s Atlantic Test Range. (Photo Source: US Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In 2000, the US Navy, considering integrating the UCAS, awarded Boeing and Northrop Grumman $2 million contracts for 15-month concept-exploration programs. As part of this, the latter developed the X-47A Pegasus. First flying in 2003, the program ended three years later, with the Navy deciding to look at other options.
In 2007, with interest reignited in the UCAS, the service awarded another contract to Northrop Grumman, as part of the UCAS-D Program. The Navy required an aircraft, which was the same size and weight as those currently in operation, but with the ability to carry various weapons within a weapons bay. The result was the X-47B.
The X-47B prototype, known as AV-1, was rolled out in December 2008. While its first flight was scheduled for late 2009, it was pushed back, with an assisted taxi test taking place that December and an unassisted one in January 2010. On February 2, 2011, the X-47B completed its first flight at Edwards Air Force Base, California. The second – the AV-2 – conducted its first flight later that year.
Northrop Grumman X-47B specs
Northrop Grumman X-47B on the aircraft elevator aboard the USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), 2013. (Photo Credit: MC2 Timothy Walter / Defense Imagery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The X-47B’s overall design is similar to that of the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit. The airframe consists of a blended-wing body, with no vertical stabilizer. Above its pointed nose sits the air intake for a single Pratt & Whitney F100-220U turbofan engine. Up to 4,500 pounds of ordinance is stored within two large weapons bays on the underside of the airframe, and the aircraft’s wings fold up for ease of storage aboard carriers.
The Pratt & Whitney F100 was initially designed in the late 1960s, and was first equipped by the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. Variants have also been used with the F-15E Strike Eagle and the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. With 14,590 pounds of thrust at cruising speed and 23,770 pounds with afterburner, the F100 allows the X-47B to reach a top speed of Mach 0.9.
Flight testing
Northrop Grumman X-47B taking off for the first time at Edwards Air Force Base, California, 2011. (Photo Credit: Rob Densmore / U.S. Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
After their first flights, the two X-47Bs entered into a three-year test program. Comprised of 50 flights from Edwards Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Patuxent River, the X-47B was set to enter at sea testing in 2013. Performing exceedingly well, it was decided after only 16 flights that the aircraft would be sent early.
In May 2012, before joining an aircraft carrier, the X-47B underwent electromagnetic interference testing of its proposed electronic warfare systems at NAS Patuxent River. That June, AV-2 joined its predecessor and began land-based catapult launches and arrested landing tests, before going to sea.
In November 2012, the X-47B began sea trials aboard the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75), out of Naval Station Norfolk. Initial carrier-based tests checked the aircraft’s compatibility with the vessel’s communication systems, flight deck and hangar bays. Performing “outstandingly,” the X-47B returned to NAS Patuxent River for more shore-based tests.
Firsts by the X-47B
Northrop Grumman X-47B launching from the USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), 2013. (Photo Credit: Erik Hildebrandt / Defense Imagery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
After successful carrier-simulated landings, the X-47B joined the USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77) in the Atlantic. On May 14, 2013, it became the first UAV to take off from a carrier via catapult. On May 17th, it continued tests aboard the aircraft carrier with touch-and-goes while the ship was underway.
Another first came on July 10, 2013, when a X-47B flew from NAS Patuxent River to George H.W. Bush, completing the first UAV landing onboard an aircraft carrier. A second was also completed, with a third being aborted due to the failure of the navigational system.
Between 2013-15, the X-47Bs were deployed aboard carriers as part of three test phases. These included touch-and-goes, arrested landings, catapult launches and wave-off procedures. These were all done in an effort to try to integrate the UAV into a full carrier air wing. At the conclusion of the program, the X-47B had completed five catapult launches, four arrested landings, nine touch-and-goes, and deck handling operations.
The tests saw the aircraft complete many other firsts, including on August 17, 2014, when an X-47B took off from and landed on the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), with a McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet acting as a chaser. This marked the first time a UAV and manned aircraft worked together onboard a carrier.
In 2014, equipment for aerial refueling was added to the X-47B for testing. In April 2015, it completed the world’s first fully autonomous aerial refueling (AAR) with an Omega Air KC-707 tanker. This event also marked the final test for the aircraft.
Life after testing
Northrop Grumman X-47B landing at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, 2013. (Photo Credit: Kelly Schindler / Defense Imagery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In February 2015, the US Navy announced that it would begin competition for contracts for new UAV, which would be expected to enter service in the early 2020s. It was also decided that, in fear they may cost too much and may not be as stealthy as needed, the X-47B would not be contracted to become the service’s first operational UAV.
In April 2015, it was decided that the two UAVs would be put on display at the National Naval Aviation Museum and NAS Patuxent River. While it’s been said that it was the plan all along to make the X-47Bs museum exhibits after their testing, this decision was reversed in July 2015, and the aircraft were to remain in flying condition for future tests. Both were transferred to Northrop Grumman’s Palmdale, California plant, where they remain to this day.
Impact on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) design
Northrop Grumman X-47B, 2013. (Photo Credit: MC2 Michael Smevog / Defense Imagery / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
While the X-47B won’t enter service as the Navy’s first UAV operated from an aircraft carrier, it set the stage for future unmanned aircraft. The tests successfully performed on it proved unmanned aircraft could be integrated into the service’s aircraft fleet, operating side-by-side with its current air-wings.
The de Havilland Mosquito was a British twin-engine, multirole combat aircraft that served with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and other Allied air forces during the Second World War. It was constructed primarily of wood, earning it the nickname, “Wooden Wonder.” The Mosquito was first introduced in 1941, and the final operational units were retired in 1963.
Development of the de Havilland Mosquito
de Havilland Mosquito. (Photo Credit: Canadian Armed Forces / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In the 1930s, de Havilland gained a reputation for its high-speed aircraft, notably the DH.88 Comet. The company also pioneered composite wood construction with the DH.91 Albatross. Wooden aircraft showed superiority, making them lighter and easier to manufacture.
On September 8, 1936, the British Air Ministry released requirements for a new bomber, including the need for a twin-engine, with the ability to carry 3,000 pounds of bombs and hit a top speed of 275 MPH. Examples produced to fill this role include the Avro Manchester and Handley Page Halifax.
Geoffrey de Havilland believed his company could design a bomber that exceeded the specifications set out by the Air Ministry.
The first element of the new aircraft was that the primary material used would be wood. On July 7, 1938, de Havilland wrote to Air Marshal Wilfrid Freeman to argue that, in times of war, aluminum and steel may not be available in the required amounts, while wood likely would. The strength-to-weight ratio of wood, argued de Havilland, was equal to or even better than any metal alternatives, and it was practical.
Freeman’s response was one of disagreement. This, however, didn’t stop de Havilland and the company continued to work on the concept. The design was still too radical for the Air Ministry when World War II broke out. However, after a full mock-up was presented to the RAF, the de Havilland DH.98 Mosquito gained official backing.
de Havilland maintained the company and its workers “could produce a twin-engine bomber which would have a performance so outstanding that little defensive equipment would be needed.” The Mosquito performed outstandingly during the war and became regarded as the most versatile warplane ever constructed.
de Havilland Mosquito specs.
de Havilland Mosquito, 1944. (Photo Credit: RAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The de Havilland Mosquito had an overall sleek design, characterized by high wings further ahead of the fuselage, a cockpit above the nose and a cone effect tapering the airframe to the tail. This was best described by F/O Frank Ruskell of No. 109 Squadron RAF:
“The first thing that struck one about the Mosquito was the beauty of line of the fuselage, tailplane, fin and engine cowlings. They all went together and made a lovely aeroplane. The cockpit cover also had a sweet line, and the undercarriage’s simplicity and the treaded tyres set the whole thing off. The aircraft set on the ground looking pert and eager, and it was easy to become fond of, which was no means true of all aeroplanes.”
The Mosquito was powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin engines. These V-12 piston aero engines, with three-bladed, constant-speed propellers, were also used on other British Warbirds, including the Avro Lancaster, Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire, and allowed the aircraft to reach a maximum speed of 415 MPH at 28,000 feet.
The Mosquito also carried a formidable armament. Located in the nose of the aircraft were eight gun ports – four belonging to 7.7 mm Browning machine guns and four for 20 mm Hispano cannons. The Mosquito could also carry up to 4,000 pounds of bombs in a single bomb bay.
Service during the Second World War
de Havilland Mosquito Mk. XVIII. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The de Havilland Mosquito entered service on November 15, 1941 and quickly became known as a highly versatile aircraft. It took on various roles, including medium bomber, fighter-bomber, night fighter, maritime strike aircraft and photo-reconnaissance. During the war, it excelled at each of these roles.
The first production Mosquito became part of the No. 1 Photographic Reconnaissance Unit, and the first mission took place on September 19, 1941.
Soon after taking on more aggressive roles as a bomber, the Mosquito became feared by the Germans. Lecturing German aircraft manufacturers, Hermann Göring said of the aircraft:
“In 1940, I could at least fly as far as Glasgow in most of my aircraft, but not now! It makes me furious when I see the Mosquito. I turn green and yellow with envy. The British, who can afford aluminum better than we can, knock together a beautiful wooden aircraft that every piano factory over there is building, and they give it a speed which they have now increased yet again.”
He continued to chastise the manufacturer, saying, “What do you make of that? There is nothing the British do not have. They have the geniuses and we have the nincompoops. After the war is over, I’m going to buy a British radio set – then at least I’ll own something that has always worked!”
The Mosquito took part in many famed operations. For instance, on the 10th anniversary of the German government coming into power, they took out the Berlin Broadcasting Station while Göring was making a speech, taking him off the air. Another attack later that afternoon did the same for a speech being made by Joseph Goebbels. The Mosquito not only devastated German targets, it also devastated their pride.
Oslo Mosquito Raid
de Havilland Mosquito B Mk. IV Series 2, 1942. (Photo Credit: RAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
On September 25, 1942, four de Havilland Mosquitos attacked the Victoria Terrasse building in Oslo, Norway – the Gestapo headquarters. Flying less than 100 feet at low levels, the aircraft, armed with 500-pound bombs with delayed fuses, departed Scotland via the North Sea.
Despite flying at low levels, two Fock-Wulf Fw 190s intercepted them. One Mosquito was forced to land by one of the attacking enemy fighters, while the other German aircraft had to land after clipping a tree with its wing. The three remaining Mosquitos dropped their bombs onto the headquarters. The building, however, wasn’t destroyed. One bomb didn’t explode, while the others detonated after they’d crashed through the other wall and outside of the structure.
While the air raid failed in its objectives, it marked the first time the RAF made the existence of the Mosquito known, and it signified what would come from the new aircraft.
Operation Jericho
Amiens Prison during Operation Jericho, 1944. (Photo Credit: RAF / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
On February 18, 1944, Mosquitos and Hawker Typhoons bombed Amiens Prison in German-occupied France. The attacking force flew at low levels, making holes in the prison walls and killing German guards by destroying their barracks.
The aircraft also helped prisoners escape to the French Resistance fighters waiting outside. Of the 832 held there, 102 were killed by the bombings, while 74 were wounded and another 255 escaped. Of that total, however, 182 were soon recaptured.
Two Mosquitos and a Typhoon were shot down during the operation, while a second Typhoon was lost at sea. That being said, it showed the abilities of the Mosquito to perform very precise attacks – and do so in a quick and effective manner.
By the end of WWII, 7,781 Mosquitos had been produced. “Mossies,” as they were sometimes called, hadn’t only shown their strength with the RAF, but other air forces within the British Empire, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. They also enjoyed service with the US Army Air Forces and 15 other nations, including France, Israel and the Soviet Union.
So many aircraft went down during the Second World War that it would be difficult to calculate the total. One was a Lockheed P-38F Lightning, a zippy little fighter with many uses. Unlike other aircraft, it was eventually recovered from where it fell 50 years prior, having been trapped in a vast sheet of ice in Greenland, earning it the nickname Glacier Girl.
Bad weather seals Glacier Girl‘s fate
Lockheed P-38F Lightning Glacier Girl at an airshow in California, 2007. (Photo Credit: Greg Goebel / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
Not much is known about Glacier Girl‘s combat history before the fateful night of July 15, 1942. She was one of six P-38s with the 94th Fighter Squadron, 1st Fighter Group, along with two Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses, returning from Operation Bolero. They were supposed to travel back to Britain, but bad weather made that impossible. Instead, the aircraft were forced to land in Greenland, where their airstrip was nothing more than an ice field.
Although some of the landings were less than textbook, all the airmen survived. They were fortunate enough that the two B-17s flying with them were able to stay in the air a little longer and transmit S.O.S. signals. However, they, too, eventually had to land on the icy terrain.
The 25 airmen stayed together for nine days, split between the two bombers, while awaiting rescue. Food and other supplies were dropped on the third day, and they were eventually rescued by dogsled and taken to a town for evacuation.
An incredible discovery
Lockheed P-38F Lightning Glacier Girl at an airshow in Florida, 2011. (Photo Credit: Paul Nelhams / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)
The aircraft they left behind weren’t so lucky, becoming nothing more than part of the ice in the years and decades that followed. A rescue mission was attempted a year later, but officials determined they were too damaged to fly and decided to leave them.
It wasn’t until 1981 that the Greenland Expedition Society, founded by Pat Epps and Richard Taylor, decided to try and find the aircraft. They’d heard the incredible firsthand story of their landing from pilot Carl Rudder and decided to investigate. They put together a large team of volunteers and embarked on what they thought would be a simple mission. As it turned out, there was absolutely no evidence of the aircraft anywhere on the ice field.
In 1988, they were finally successful, having gone back to the crash site with the proper radar systems.
Glacier Girl has become a popular airshow attraction
Lockheed P-38F Lightning Glacier Girl, 2014. (Photo Credit: Valder137 / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)
It only took a few days, but the team were able to find all eight aircraft. The only problem was they lay beneath 264 feet of ice.
Glacier Girl was eventually recovered, thanks to the help of the “Gopher,” a Thermal Meltdown Generator that could melt thick layers of ice. The aircraft was raised in 1992, 50 years after it first landed in Greenland.
Perhaps the most incredible part of the discovery was that it was sent back to Kentucky and restored to full working order. Glacier Girl flew again in October 2002. In the years that have followed, the aircraft has made appearances at various airshows across the United States.
Knowing the seven other aircraft were still hidden in Greenland, many explorers tried to find them, although Glacier Girl is the only known find to return to the skies. Successful missions in 2016 and ’18 recovered more of the P-38s. As of 2023, there are still four that haven’t been removed from the ice.
There’s no word on whether anyone plans to recover either of the B-17s.
Imagine flying through the skies during the Second World War when, suddenly, an aircraft appears to your left. The pilot waves at you, but it’s not a man – it’s a gorilla. This may seem like an implausible occurrence, but it did happen. While it may appear as though the man was a practical joker – and Jack Woolams certainly was – he actually had a clever reason for wearing the getup in flight.
During the Second World War, all sides worked on aircraft innovation. A large portion of this development centered around the jet fighter, an aircraft that required no propellers for forward movement. Although Germany was the first to get one in the air with the Heinkel He 178, and the British had earlier produced the required engine, the United States wasn’t far behind with its own.
Bell Aircraft signed a contract with the US Army Air Forces on September 30, 1941 to create the country’s first. Production was top-secret, as the service didn’t want other militaries knowing what it was working on.
Bell quickly came up with a working model and, by March 1942, three prototypes were in the works. In September 1942, the XP-59A was taken to Muroc Army Air Field (currently Edwards Air Force Base, California) to begin test flights. The first taxiing test saw pilot Robert Stanley in the cockpit, with Col. Laurence Craigie making the first official flight the next day.
Jack Woolams
Jack Woolams, 1943. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Despite these accomplishments, neither men are especially famous for their flights in the P-59 Airacomet. One who is, however, is test pilot Jack Woolams.
Woolams was a student at the University of Chicago before joining the US Army Air Corps for about 18 months of active duty. He completed his degree upon returning home, after which he got a position as a test pilot with Bell Aircraft’s Experimental Research Division.
While in this role, Woolams had a string of successes. In September 1942, he was the first individual to fly a fighter from coast to coast without stopping. The following year, he set an altitude record of 47,600 feet while flying a Bell YP-59A Airacomet, and was the first man to pilot the Bell X-1.
In 1944, Woolams was, understandably, made chief test pilot for the company.
Is that a gorilla in the cockpit?
Jack Woolams wearing his gorilla mask, 1942. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Perhaps what’s best remember about Jack Woolams is that, while a test pilot for the P-59, he wore a gorilla mask and bowler hat. He also carried a cigar in his mouth. To make things even more comical, he’d join formation with pilots flying regular aircraft and wave at them. As the P-59 was guaranteed to be faster than whatever they were flying, he’d then jet away.
This behavior was more than just fun and games. The existence of the P-59 was supposed to be a secret, yet the aircraft still needed flight hours. One way to get around this was for the test pilots to come up with ways to deceive those who might see it. In Woolams’ case, his gorilla mask, combined with the propeller-less aircraft, was unbelievable enough that those on the ground might think whoever reported seeing him were telling tall tales.
Eventually, the USAAF went in a different direction for their first jet fighter. Various pilots said the P-59 paled in comparison to similar aircraft, so the service opted for the Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star. As for Woolams, he was tragically killed on August 30, 1946, when his aircraft crashed into Lake Ontario during a practice flight for the National Air Races.
In the post-World War II world, the need for advanced jet fighter technology loomed large. In the soaring 1960s, the Saab J35 Draken was nothing more than a glimmer in the eye of ambitious Swedish engineers. As thrilling as the concept of a tail-less double-delta wing aircraft was, it was a leap into uncharted territory. However, just as a dragon breathes fire, Saab engineers embraced the challenge with determination – the kind legends are made of.
Development of the Saab J35 Draken
Saab J35 Draken model, 1961. (Photo Credit: Harry Pot / Anefo / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
The Swedish Air Force, keen not to lag behind in the race for advanced jet fighter technology, began envisioning a supersonic fighter capable of intercepting bombers at high altitudes. A bold idea took root, and the Defence Materiel Administration announced a set of requirements for a state-of-the-art interceptor.
Unlike its contemporary, the US Air Force’s Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, this Nordic creation had a unique role to play; it was to operate from reinforced public roads, a strategy developed by the Swedish Ministry of Defence during the Cold War to protect against potential nuclear threats. It also had to be capable of conducting operations in all weather conditions.
Enter the Saab J35 Draken – the “Nordic Dragon” – which rose to the challenge.
The J35, a testament to innovative design and engineering prowess, was born from a daring decision to embrace the double-delta wing configuration. Despite being untested and potentially fraught with problems, it offered a solution to most critical issues. The delta wing, with its robust structure and large internal volume for fuel storage, seemed promising, albeit drag prone.
In the absence of modern aids like computer-aided testing and flight simulation, the Swedish engineers embarked on a slow and laborious undertaking. After extensive wind tunnel testing and test flights, they built a small but flyable prototype, the Saab 210 – or “Little Dragon.” Performing splendidly on its first flight over Stockholm in January 1952, the Little Dragon breathed life into the J35 Draken.
Saab J35 Draken specs
Saab J35A2 Drakens. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Digital Museum / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The J35 Draken’s design was unique, featuring a double-delta wing configuration – a pioneering concept. This structure, with its distinctively sharp angles, was instrumental in achieving the desired balance between high-speed performance and low-speed stability.
The J35’s aerodynamic design, optimized for high-speed flight, was complemented by an afterburner-equipped turbojet engine that granted it extraordinary speed capabilities. In fact, it was one of the first Western European-built aircraft to break Mach 2.
The aircraft’s body was meticulously designed, with the cockpit providing a wide field of view for the pilot. It was equipped with advanced radar and fire-control systems, which were state-of-the-art for its time. The J35’s fuselage was divided into front and rear sections, bolted together and housing various systems.
The J35’s primary armament was carried externally and consisted of up to four AIM-9 Sidewinder short-range air-to-air missiles. The aircraft could also carry various types of rockets and bombs internally, and it also allowed for the installation of either two 30 mm cannons or additional external fuel tanks.
A rather bouncy start
Saab J35 Draken. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / Svenska Dagbladet / IMS Vintage Photos / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The beginning of the Saab J35 Draken’s service life wasn’t exactly smooth sailing.
The double-delta wing configuration, a revolutionary idea at the time, proved to be a wicked beast to tame. With its unstable nature, landing the aircraft was a high-stakes game requiring manual stabilization – a tricky feat for any pilot. However, as the saying goes, every cloud has a silver lining. In this case, the challenge presented an unexpected opportunity – the discovery of a maneuver unknown to any other nation at the time.
Cobra Maneuver
Diagram of the Cobra Maneuver, as performed by a Mikoyan MiG-29. (Photo Credit: Nicola F. / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In their quest to master the unpredictable beast, Swedish test pilots stumbled upon a secret weapon: the Cobra Maneuver. As the J35 Draken entered an uncontrollable stall at high alpha, they discovered they could control it by quickly negating the angle of attack to counter the suspension.
Voila! They’d turned the J35 into its own airbrake, reducing its speed instantaneously.
With its exceptional speed, range and complex systems, the J35 brought a new dimension to the term “super stall.” The Cobra Maneuver was a technically-challenging display of controlled stalling. It demonstrated the aircraft’s tremendous maneuverability, turning it into an enormous airbrake to slow down the aircraft as quickly as possible.
Saab J35 Draken’s legacy
Saab J35 Draken. (Photo Credit: Tommy Olsson / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
Not only was the J35 Draken a high-altitude interceptor, it also proved to be a capable dogfighter. With impressive quick-turn capability and its high speed, the Swedish fighter was twice as capable as other single-engine jets of the same era. The improved J35B model featured an enhanced power plant, an enlarged afterburner, a redesigned rear fuselage and integrated with the air defense control network, STRIL 60.
While the Cobra Maneuver is now associated with more modern aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-27 and the Mikoyan MiG-29, it’s important to remember where it all began. The J35 Draken took the aviation world by storm and will be remembered as the aircraft that accidentally discovered the maneuver.
The Mikoyan MiG-29K is a Russian all-weather carrier-based multirole fighter. Developed by the Mikoyan Design Bureau in the late 1980s, it was the naval variant of the Mikoyan MiG-29. The project was paused following the collapse of the Soviet Union, only to be revived in the early 2000s after the Indian Navy showed interest. The Russians also wound up adopting the aircraft, equipping it to this day.
Development of the Mikoyan MiG-29K
Mikoyan MiG-29K at the MAKS-2003 airshow. (Photo Credit: Yevgeny Pashnin / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
Development and testing of the MiG-29K occurred in response to the Soviet Union’s need for a carrier-based fighter aircraft. A naval version of the MiG-29 seemed promising, with the original aircraft having first flown in the late 1970s.
The design of the MiG-29K involved several modifications to make it suitable for carrier operations. The airframe was reinforced to withstand the stress of catapult launches and arrested landings. The wings and tail were also modified to allow them to fold for storage onboard Soviet aircraft carriers.
The MiG-29K’s first flight took place in July 1988. A series of tests followed, first on the ground, then from shore establishments. Carrier-based trials were conducted onboard the aircraft carrier AdmiralKuznetsov, then known as Tbilisi.
Temporarily put on pause
Mikoyan MiG-29K with the Indian Navy. (Photo Credit: Indian Navy / Wikimedia Commons / GODL-India)
Development of the MiG-29K simultaneously occurred alongside that of the Sukhoi Su-27K (later designated Su-33), another carrier-based fighter being designed for the Soviet Navy.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia focused on the Su-33 and halted further development of the MiG-29K. Despite this, Mikoyan held onto the aircraft, which experienced a revival in 2004, following the Indian Navy’s acquisition of the former Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov. The service preferred the MiG-29K’s smaller size, compared to the larger Su-33.
Russian interest in the MiG-29K was based primarily on the cost-effectiveness of piggy-backing on the Indian Navy’s order, rather than ordering additional Su-33s.
Mikoyan MiG-29K specs
Mikoyan MiG-29K at the MAKS-2009 airshow. (Photo Credit: Doomych / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The MiG-29K’s design includes the aforementioned reinforced airframe and folding parts. The aircraft is powered by two Klimov RD-33MK turbofan engines, each capable of producing 19,000 pounds of thrust. They’re located toward the rear and are angled downward, to reduce the risk of ingesting foreign objects during takeoff and landing.
The cockpit has advanced avionics, including a Phazotron-NIIR Zhuk-M radar, an infrared search and track (IRST) system, a helmet-mounted target designator and a digital fly-by-wire control system.
The MiG-29K has a maximum speed of Mach 2+ and can operate at altitudes of up to 59,000 feet. It’s armed with a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-30-1 cannon and can carry a variety of air-to-air missiles, air-to-surface missiles and bombs on its six external hardpoints. The MiG-29K also has an in-flight refueling capability, allowing it to extend its range and time on station.
Overall, the design of the MiG-29K represents a significant upgrade over the earlier models, with improvements in performance, avionics and carrier suitability. All these have garnered it the distinction of being a fourth-generation aircraft.
Service with the Indian Navy
Mikoyan MiG-29K with INAS 303. (Photo Credit: Indian Navy / Wikimedia Commons / GODL-India)
In 2004, the Indian Navy ordered 12 MiG-29K single-seaters and four MiG-29KUB two-seater variants. Delivery began in December 2009, with the aircraft entering service the following February.
The MiG-29K has faced some challenges during its service with the Indian Navy. Five crashed between 2011-22. On top of this, supply chain issues have saw the service experience problems acquiring parts. That being said, the aircraft remains an important part of the Indian Navy’s airpower, and it’s expected to continue to remain in this role for many years to come.
Service with the Russian Navy
Mikoyan MiG-29K with the Russian Navy. (Photo Credit: Oleg Belyakov / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
In 2009, the Russian Navy ordered 24 MiG-29Ks, a contract worth around $1 billion. Delivery began the following year, with the aircraft entering service in 2013. The service operates two variants – MiG-29KR and MiG-29KUBR – which are virtually identical to those being flown by the Indian Navy.
The MiG-29K has participated in various Russian naval operations, including those in Syria in 2016. Four were deployed to the region to conduct airstrikes against targets supporting Syrian government forces.
The Russian Navy continues to operate the MiG-29K and is projected to continue to fly this fourth-generation aircraft.
