political history news

The Hughes XF-11 was a prototype reconnaissance aircraft intended to be operated by the US Army Air Forces (USAAF). It was partially designed by Howard Hughes, and his company built just two units. In 1943, the USAAF ordered 100, but the program was delayed until the end of the Second World War.

The first XF-11 took to the skies in 1946, with Hughes himself in the cockpit. This flight ended in a fiery crash, which Hughes somehow managed to survive. He later completed another test in the second prototype. The program was ultimately canceled, something that didn’t come as a surprise, since the Hughes Aircraft Company had been under investigation by the US Senate.

Development of the Hughes XF-11

Howard Hughes in the cockpit of a Hughes XF-11 prototype, 1947. (Photo Credit: Keystone-France / Getty Images)

The XF-11 was designed to be a fast, long-range, high-altitude photographic reconnaissance aircraft. It was based on Howard Hughes’ previous private venture, the D-2 fighter-bomber. The latter was ultimately deemed unsuitable for service with the USAAF, as it couldn’t carry the required equipment and failed to tick the boxes of both a fighter aircraft and an aerial bomber.

Hughes, wanting a military contract, told the USAAF that the D-2 could be turned into a reconnaissance aircraft. To help get the service on his side, he spent millions acquiring engineers and staff who could help make this a reality. He also talked to Secretary of Commerce Jesse Holman Jones, a friend of his father’s, who discussed the project with President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

In 1943, Col. Elliott Roosevelt visited a number of manufacturers regarding their designs for reconnaissance aircraft, one of which was Hughes Aircraft Company. On August 11, he arrived at the company’s facility and was shown the D-2 prototype. John Meyer, Hughes’ public relations agent, went out of his way to give Roosevelt a good time, including taking him out to parties in New York City and nights out at Manhattan’s best clubs, all paid for by Meyer.

When Roosevelt reported to Gen. Henry Arnold, the chief of the USAAF, he recommended Hughes’ proposal. An order for 100 units was placed, with the first to be delivered by 1944. This was in direct disagreement of the USAAF Materiel Command, which believed the Hughes Aircraft Company didn’t have a trustworthy track record.

This decision was something Arnold would later come to regret, saying he made it “much against my better judgment and the advice of my staff.”

Howard Hughes fought many of the US Army Air Forces’ requirements

Hughes XF-11. (Photo Credit: METOPower / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

From the very beginning, the XF-11 was plagued with issues. The first had more to do with Hughes’ ego, rather than the aircraft itself. A $43 million contract was given, to which Hughes objected, believing he should have been given an additional $3.6 or $3.9 million for developing the D-2. He also objected to the USAAF’s requirements, such as an all-metal design and self-sealing fuel tanks.

Hughes also fought against the War Production Board, which wanted him to build a new assembly plant near the Hughes Tool Company in Houston, Texas, instead of in southern California. Despite all of his objections, Hughes was only reimbursed $1.6 million. He agreed to the design changes and was able to build the aircraft at his assembly plant in Culver City, California.

This whole period, filled with petty squabbles, lasted 10 months, with a final contract being given on August 1, 1944. The process of building the XF-11 fell behind schedule very quickly, and the USAAF threatened to cancel the project. In an attempt to fix these problems, Hughes brought on Charles Perrell, the former vice president of production with Consolidated Vultee.

Perrell found Hughes in a sorry state of affairs. He recalled seeing a “complete lack of experience in the design and construction of airplanes in general.” He worked exceedingly hard to make Hughes Aircraft Company into a proper, more effective manufacturing machine. However, there were a number of setbacks, including the resignation of 21 engineers in May 1944.

In May 1945, the USAAF changed the order from 100 to three prototypes, since fighting in the European Theater had come to a close. The project was no longer a priority, despite Perrell fixing many of the company’s problems. At this time, Hughes returned and began to meddle, leading to his firing of Perrell that December.

Hughes XF-11 specs

Hughes XF-11. (Photo Credit: METOPower / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 4.0)

The overall design of the XF-11 resembled that of the Lockheed P-38 Lightning. It had the configuration of a central nacelle that accommodated a crew of two, including a pilot and navigator/photographer, and twin booms. This was similar to other aircraft, such as the aforementioned P-38 and the Northrop P-61 Black Widow.

The XF-11 was 65 feet, five inches long, with a wingspan of 101 feet, four inches. The aircraft was powered by two Pratt & Whitney R-4360-31 Wasp Major 28-cylinder, air-cooled radial piston engines, each boasting a Hamilton-Standard eight-blade, counter-rotation, superhydromatic propeller. With these, the XF-11 could reach a maximum speed of 450 MPH, with a 5,000-mile range.

As only two prototypes were built, and the aircraft was intended to serve in a purely photo reconnaissance role, the XF-11 wasn’t equipped with any weaponry.

Testing the Hughes XF-11

Wreck of the first Hughes XF-11 prototype, 1946. (Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images)

On April 24, 1946, the first XF-11 prototype took to the skies for a brief flight at 20 feet. On July 7, Hughes himself took control of the aircraft for its first official test flight, resulting in the XF-11 crashing.

The USAAF had deemed that a 45-minute test flight would be appropriate and require 600 gallons of fuel. Hughes ordered that 1,200 gallons be loaded, suggesting he planned to embark on a much longer flight. Upon taking off, he immediately violated protocol by retracting the landing gear. He seemed to have been confused about whether or not the gear had actually retracted, as he lowered and raised it multiple times.

After flying over Culver City for an hour and 15 minutes, a leak caused a malfunction, reversing the rear propellor’s pitch and making the XF-11 yaw hard to the right and down toward the ground. Instead of returning to the runway, Hughes decided to fix the problem himself. He, again, raised and lowered the landing gear and reduced power to the left engine while maintaining full power to the right.

Realizing he was too low to bail out, Hughes prepared to crash-land at the Los Angeles Country Club. However, about 300 yards from the golf course, the aircraft lost altitude and clipped three houses in Beverly Hills. The XF-11 and the third house were both destroyed, and Hughes was almost killed.

The USAAF concluded, “It appeared that loss of hydraulic fluid caused failure of the pitch change mechanism of right rear propeller. Mr. Hughes maintained full power of right engine and reduced that of left engine instead of trying to fly with right propeller windmilling without power. It was Wright Field’s understanding that the crash was attributed to pilot error.”

On April 5, 1947, Hughes flew the second prototype. This flight, unlike the first, was uneventful. However, it did show the issues the XF-11 had when flying at low speeds. In July 1948, the newly-created US Air Force redesignated the XF-11 the “XR-11,” and it was decided shortly after that the program would be canceled.

In January 1964, a Boeing B-52H Stratofortress embarked on an eight-hour flight load survey to test buffeting turbulence effects at low-levels. When this turbulence became too much, the bomber climbed to a higher altitude, where disaster struck. Missing its tail and in what should have been a deadly situation, the B-52H and its crew survived.

Despite having the makings of a horrible disaster, this incident showcased the bomber’s design and the skill of the men onboard.

A routine test flight

Boeing B-52F Stratofortress, 1960s. (Photo Credit: United States Government / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

After the B-52H Stratofortress embarked on its flight from Wichita, Kansas to the Rocky Mountains, its crew began their test, which included 10-minute runs at 280, 350 and 400 knots at 500 feet. The first part of the flight was successful. However, when the bomber flew over Wagon Mount, New Mexico, heavy turbulence was determined to be on the tail of the B-52H

Deciding it was safer to abandon the low-level testing, the aircraft climbed to 14,000 feet. The test continued, as the mountain range also increased in altitude. Near Aguilar, Colorado, the B-52H was approximately 1,000 feet above and to the right of the mountains. As it increased its speed to 350 knots, heavy turbulence was, again, encountered, which lasted only nine seconds.

Being struck by this turbulence, the B-52H’s nose pitched up and the bomber banked to the left. It then rapidly rolled to the right. This resulted in the vertical stabilizer being almost entirely torn off – but the crew didn’t yet know this. Initially, they’d prepared to abandon the aircraft, before discovering they still had some control over it.

Boeing B-52H Stratofortress flying without a tail

Boeing B-52H Stratofortress after losing its tail, 1964. (Photo Credit: United States Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B-52H Stratofortress was brought under marginal control, with the airbrakes slowing the bomber down and a forward center of gravity being created with a fuel transfer. The crew then called for help. Test pilot Dale Felix soon arrived in a North American F-100 and, after surveying the damage, told the crew what had happened.

The pilot manning the B-52H, Charles “Chuck” Fisher, recalled saying, “We’ve slowed down to 220 knots, we’re stable, and I’m going to handle it pretty carefully.” Felix then told him, “That’s a good idea. All of your rudder and most of your vertical fin are gone.” The crew could hardly believe it. After what must have felt like forever, Fisher said, “Don’t I even have 50 percent?” Felix responded, “No, you don’t have 50 percent.”

Approximately 83-85 percent of the vertical stabilizer had been torn off; essentially, the B-52H was flying without a tail.

To help stabilize the bomber, the rear landing gear was lowered. Its crew then began flying back to Wichita. They decided, after testing speeds between 200-220 knots, that 210 were the best for their situation, and they maintained an altitude of 12,000 feet.

Poor weather at Wichita meant it would be safer to change course to Blytheville Air Force Base, Arkansas. Upon their approach, the wingtip gears were lowered first, followed by the forward landing gear. The B-52H then descended to 10,000 feet at 160 knots. The crew maintained this reduced speed for the landing, which was completed successfully.

Aftermath of the incident

The B-52H Stratofortress’ vertical stabilizer is large and weighs roughly 2,000 pounds, and the fact the bomber could fly for five hours without its tail is incredibly impressive. The incident showcased the dangers of intense turbulence, but also highlighted the aircraft’s durability and the skill and training of its crew, who performed admirably.

The B-52 went on to see service in a number of conflicts, and since being introduced into the US Air Force in 1955 has remained in service. The current plan is to keep it active until the 2050s, meaning it’ll have spent a century in the sky.

The Gloster Meteor was the first British jet fighter and the Allies’ only jet-powered aircraft to engage in combat during World War II. Following the conflict, the British looked to continue developing its jet technology, with one concept being an aircraft that had a cockpit that would see pilots fly from a prone position. To test the effects of acceleration/inertia-induced forces from this stance, they developed the Meteor F8 WK935.

R.S.4 ‘Bobsleigh’

Reid and Sigrist R.S.3 Desford. (Photo Credit: Royal Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The Reid and Sigrist R.S.3 Desford was developed during World War II. Only one unit of the twin-engine, three-seat trainer was produced, but it was enough for additional development to occur, resulting in the R.S.4 “Bobsleigh,” an experimental aircraft that tested the effects of g-forces upon a pilot when flown in a prone position.

While it was successfully tested from 1951-56, the Royal Air Force (RAF) required a testbed that flew at greater speeds, with much higher g-forces. This led the service to what would eventually become the Gloster Meteor F8 WK935.

Developing the Gloster Meteor F8 WK935

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935. (Photo Credit: Alan Wilson / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Gloster Meteor F8 WK935 – also known as the “Prone Pilot” – was developed for two reasons. The first was that the addition of a prone cockpit extended the nose of the airframe, which, in turn, reduced drag. It was also believed that the pilot, now lying down, would be able to withstand a greater amount of g-forces than they would in the typical upright, sitting position.

This was a significant advantage, since the Meteor was a jet fighter capable of flying at greater speeds than the turboprop aircraft seen throughout the Second World War.

Initially, the Bristol Aeroplane Company looked to develop such an aircraft and considered adding a prone cockpit to the Type 185. However, the project ultimately fell to Armstrong-Whitworth.

How pilots flew the Gloster Meteor F8 WK935

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935. (Photo Credit: Alan D.R. Brown / Wikimedia Commons / GNU Free Documentation License)

The modifications made to Gloster Meteor F8 WK935 were all done “in-house.” The standard cockpit was kept, and it was decided that a prone one would be added. This cockpit included a custom-built couch, controls on either side of the pilot and suspended rear pedals. The aircraft’s tail section was also replaced with that of a Meteor NF 12.

As can be expected, it would be incredibly difficult to escape the WK935 while lying down. To give pilots the chance to bail out in case of emergency, an escape hatch was installed just behind the cockpit. To successfully use it, the airmen had to complete what can only be described as a complex procedure. They first would have to jettison the rudder pedals, move backward toward the hatch and then retract the nose wheel.

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935 specs

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935. (Photo Credit: Bzuk / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)

The Gloster Meteor F8 WK935 had a very distinct look. That being said, its specifications were almost identical to those of a regular Meteor F8. Aside from the lack of armament, the greatest difference was the addition of the prone cockpit on the nose. This section protruded outwards to a point, and there was a second canopy overtop.

The WK935 was powered by two Rolls-Royce Derwent 8 centrifugal-flow turbojet engines, which each produced 3,500 pounds of thrust. It could reach a maximum speed of 600 MPH at 10,000 feet, and could operate at a service ceiling of around 43,000 feet.

The pilot would be placed in a most uncomfortable position. They’d lie on their stomach on the couch, at an incline of 30 degrees. Their chin and arms would lay on individual rests, and at hand were all of the controls needed to successfully operate the aircraft. Their legs would be bent at the knees and attached to the hanging rudder pedals.

This position would prove successful in dealing with g-forces, but also presented many issues.

Testing the Gloster Meteor F8 WK935

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935. (Photo Credit: Hugh Llewelyn / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 2.0)

The Gloster Meteor F8 WK935, with Armstrong-Whitworth Chief Test Pilot Eric George Franklin at the controls, took to the skies for the first time on February 10, 1954. What followed was around 55 hours of flight testing during 99 flights, the results of which were ultimately inconclusive.

RAF test pilot C.M. Lambert also flew WK935. In the March 30, 1956 issue of Flight magazine, he stated that, after entering into a loop at 410 knots, “I glanced at the g-meter and saw the maximum-reading needle at 6g with no sign of a blackout.” This was a great achievement, but it wasn’t without its issues.

Lambert later recalled issues with bailing out, saying, “You can’t eject in any direction lying down… The only way out of the prone Meteor was to slip feet-first off the rear end of the couch and through the floor.”

Flying the WK935 also wasn’t very fun. In turbulence, “there was a tendency to pound up and down on the couch, making breathing difficult. It was impossible to keep the head still, and the chin was continually banged on the chin rest, making navigation difficult.”

The aircraft’s issues ultimately led to its retirement

Gloster Meteor F8 WK935. (Photo Credit: Clemens Vasters / Wikimedia Commons CC BY 2.0)

While the prone flying position helped pilots deal with the g-forces they encountered, the development of g-suits offered a similar solution to the problem. This alone made the prone position present in the Gloster Meteor F8 WK935 unnecessary.

The testing, however, also showed the negative elements of flying in such a position. For instance, a prone pilot has a limited rear view, compared to a standard cockpit setup. This would have become a significant issue if the WK935 were to enter into combat against a conventional fighter.

The WK935 was retired soon after and stored at No. 12 Maintenance Unit (MU). It was later sent to RAF Colerne, before arriving at its final home at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford, where it can still be seen today.

During the Second World War, the Nakajima B5N emerged as one of the most formidable aircraft in the Imperial Japanese Navy’s (IJN) arsenal. Renowned for its versatility, range and precision, the torpedo bomber played a pivotal role in numerous battles and was responsible for delivering devastating blows to enemy targets throughout the conflict.

Nakajima B5N torpedo bomber. (Photo Credit: SDSAM / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B5N – known as the “Kate” by the Allies – first took to the skies in January 1937. Highly advanced for its time, it featured a monoplane design, sleek aerodynamics and a powerful radial engine that enabled it to achieve impressive speeds. Its innovative design made it a true pioneer among naval aircraft, with features such as a retractable landing gear, a fully-enclosed cockpit and a versatile weapons bay.

The B5N became a household name in 1941 when it played a pivotal role in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The attack saw a number of the torpedo bombers drop bombs that crippled the US fleet moored along Battleship Row. One was even flown by Mitsuo Fuchida, who commanded the attack. Their precision and success in this engagement earned them a reputation as one of the most formidable naval bombers of the war.

B5Ns were used in many other significant battles throughout the Pacific Theater. They were a crucial player in the early years of the Second World War, including during the Battles of the Coral Sea and the Santa Cruz Islands. What became clear over time was that their effectiveness lay in their ability to carry various payloads, adapting to different mission types with ease.

These, however, paled in comparison to how the B5Ns were used during the Battle of Midway. Along with the submarine I-168, the torpedo bombers were instrumental in the sinking of the USS Yorktown (CV-5). However, during this pivotal engagement, the Japanese fleet also suffered significant losses, due to the emergence of more advanced and better-coordinated US defenses.

As the war progressed, newer and more advanced aircraft entered the fray, reducing the B5N’s dominance. Nonetheless, the Japanese continued to upgrade and modify the torpedo bomber to maintain its relevance on the battlefield. Despite these efforts, its role shifted from frontline bombing missions to more secondary roles, such as training and anti-submarine warfare.Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bomber. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / Naval History and Heritage Command / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

As the war drew to a close, the B5N faced an inevitable decline. With the IJN suffering from resource shortages and the loss of experienced pilots, the aircraft was relegated to kamikaze attacks. Seen in the above photo is one used for such a purpose. The torpedo bomber can be seen a little worse for wear, located off the coast of Papua New Guinea, where it was shot down.

In 1976, the US Navy retired its fleet of Vought F-8 Crusaders. The aircraft had an illustrious career, with the greatest kill ratio of all American fighters during the Vietnam War. This meant it wasn’t going to be easy to replace it. The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II and the XF8U-3 Crusader III were the two vying for the spot. Ultimately, the Navy chose the former, which remained in active duty with the service until 1987, while the XF8U-3 was provided to NASA as a research aircraft.

This eventually led to tensions between the two, with NASA pilots going so far as to bully naval aviators.

Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III

Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III, 1958. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Despite a few differences, such as an angled air intake and the addition of two ventral fins at the rear of the aircraft, the XF8U-3 Crusader III looked almost identical to earlier F8Us. That being said, it was larger, more powerful and faster.

The F8U-3 was powered by a single Pratt & Whitney J75-P-5A afterburning turbojet, which produced 16,500 pounds of dry thrust and 29,500 pounds of thrust with afterburner. The XF8U-3 could reach a maximum speed of Mach 2.39 at 50,000 feet, and it had a range of 560 nautical miles.

When compared to previous F-8s, the difference was obvious. The F-8E, for instance, only produced 18,000 pounds of thrust with afterburner and could reach a maximum speed of just Mach 1.8.

McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II

McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, 1965. (Photo Credit: Stuart Lutz / Gado / Getty Images)

The F-4 Phantom II was developed to be both a fighter-bomber and long-range supersonic jet interceptor. The plan was initially to base the design on the F3H Demon, just with more firepower, but the Navy later approached McDonnell with requirements for an all-weather fleet defense interceptor.

The final design was powered by two General Electric turbojets, each capable of producing around 18,000 pounds of thrust with afterburner. The F-4 could reach a top speed of Mach 2.2, making it among the fastest jets of its time, and it featured a number of weapons that gave it an advantage in the field. It was built to carry 18,000 pounds of missiles and bombs on its nine hardpoints, and later versions were equipped with the M61 Vulcan.

A number of variants were built over the F-4’s service life, and the aircraft was eventually adopted by the US Marine Corps and Air Force.

NASA got the aircraft the US Navy didn’t want

Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III, 1958. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The XF8U-3 Crusader III was ultimately far more agile than the F-4 Phantom II. While many believed the former could fly circles around the latter, the Navy decided the F-4 would replace its fleet of F-8 Crusaders. Among the reasons for this were the multiple roles the F-4 could fill, in addition to its much greater payload.

The XF8U-3, when compared to the F-4, was a far more complicated aircraft. The former only had a single pilot to operate all of its systems. In contrast, the latter had a pilot and radar intercept officer, which allowed for the workload to be shared.

The project was canceled after five XF8U-3 Crusader IIIs were built. All five were sent to NASA for atmospheric testing, where it was seen as the ideal aircraft, due to its ability to fly above 95 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere.

Did NASA pilots bully the US Navy in the air?

McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom IIs, 1970. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland is located at the mouth of the Patuxent River, on the Chesapeake Bay. It’s home to Naval Air Systems Command, the US Naval Test Pilot School and the Atlantic Test Range, and serves as a base for testing and training.

The greater speed and agility of the XF8U-3 Crusader III ultimately saw NASA aviators have the last laugh. Flying out of NAS Pax River, Navy Phantom F-4 IIs conducted mock dogfights, during which the NASA-flown XF8U-3s would intercept the fighters and show up the naval aviators.

After being embarrassed by these dogfights, the naval aviators complained to the top brass – AKA, the Pentagon. Not long after, it was requested that the NASA pilots stop the harassment.

There were many variations created, one of which was the MiG-25RB, codenamed Foxbat-B. This was a single-seater aircraft that had improved reconnaissance instruments and a bombing system capable of carrying a load of eight 500-kg bombs.

It’s this interceptor that can be seen in the above photo as American troops dig it out of the sand. The discovery in question occurred during the early stages of the Iraq War. In April 2023, troops came across the aircraft buried deep in the sand at Al Taqaddum Air Base, in the western desert of Iraq.

Its presence at the base came as a surprise to many, despite there being intelligence that certain things had been buried in the region. As former Defence Secretary Donald Rumsfeld put it, “We’d heard a great many things had been buried, but we had not known where they were, and we’d been operating in that immediate vicinity for weeks and weeks and weeks…12, 13 weeks, and didn’t know they were [there].”

Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25PU. (Photo Credit: Leonid Faerberg / transport-photo / Airliners / Wikimedia Commons / GFDL 1.2)

Although the aircraft’s body was in remarkably good condition, the wings had been removed before it was covered in sand, and they weren’t found in the vicinity. Supposedly, the MiG-25RB had been buried in the desert to prevent it from being destroyed by coalition forces during the invasion. As of 2006, this particular aircraft is now located at the National Museum of the US Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.

This wasn’t the only aircraft of this type to be found. In fact, several dozen were found in 2003, including further MiGs and Sukhoi Su-25s.

Why were these aircraft buried underground, instead of in use? Interestingly enough, before the American invasion, Iraq had one of the largest Air Forces in the region. The service had put a significant amount of money into improving its air prowess, which included purchasing newer jets, improving its airbases and runways, and building new hangars.

However, when the US invaded and marched on Baghdad in 2003, they encountered no aerial resistance, as the Iraqi forces had decided this would do nothing to stop the much superior Americans. Instead, it was ordered that the fleet be buried in the desert, which is why the US military found so many aircraft under the sand.

It’s undeniable that aerial combat played a pivotal role in shaping the outcome of numerous battles during World War II. The skies were dominated by aircraft-on-aircraft fighting, with the Allies ultimately coming out on top. As a symbol of pride and achievement, many pilots adorned their fighters and bombers with victory markings, distinctive emblems that tallied up their triumphs against the enemy.

Victory markings emerged as a way for pilots to showcase their individual and collective successes against enemy aircraft. They took the form of painted symbols or decals placed in various locations on an aircraft. Typically, each marking represented one confirmed enemy aircraft that was shot down, while other symbols signified other victories. The practice varied among different Allied air forces, but a variety of different icons were used to denote different missions.

The above image from 1945 shows just how effective this particular aircraft and its crew were in the air. The pilot of the Martin B-26 Marauder Half & Half stands in the cockpit of the bomber, which participated in an astounding number of missions, as its own victory markings show.

It was also extremely common for pilots to mark their aircraft with the flags of their enemies. This is seen among the numerous photos of US Navy pilots, who used these symbols.

While victory markings certainly had a positive psychological impact on the pilots, they also played a significant role in boosting the morale of both ground crews and the civilian population. The sight of an aircraft covered in these symbols demonstrated the prowess and dominance of the Allied forces, instilling a sense of pride and hope. Furthermore, the media often used images of decorated aircraft in propaganda materials.

Victory markings remained a cherished tradition throughout the Second World War and were something even the Axis powers used. In fact, they’re still used by some militaries to this day.

The North American B-25 Mitchell was an American twin-engine medium bomber that saw service throughout the Second World War. Flying in all theaters of the conflict, it’s perhaps most famous for taking part in the Doolittle Raid on Japan in April 1942. By the end of the war, 9,816 had been built, seeing service across the US military and with multiple Allied air forces.

Development of the North American B-25 Mitchell

North American B-25 Mitchell assembly line at Kansas City, Kansas, 1942. (Photo Credit: Alfred T. Palmer / Adam Cuerden / Farm Security Administration or Office of War Information / Library of Congress / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

In March 1939, the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) published requirements for a new twin-engine medium bomber that needed the ability to carry a 2,400-pound payload and travel up to 1,200 miles at 300 MPH. North American Aviation submitted the NA-62, a reworking of its NA-40B design. That September, the USAAC selected it, with the aircraft’s new designation being the B-25 Mitchell.

The B-25 flew for the first time on August 19, 1940. Early production models had issues with the wings, with the first nine having a wing dihedral – an upward-angled wing that made the bomber less stable. The problem was fixed by flattening the outer wing and keeping the angled one between the fuselage and the engines.

Other design changes, such as the enlarging of the bombers’ tail fins and changing their inward tilt, were made between 1940-41. The following year, the B-25B entered service with the US Army Air Forces (USAAF). After seeing combat, further modifications were made, allowing it to take on other roles, such as that of a gunship and strafer.

Durable and safe

North American B-25H Mitchell. (Photo Credit: San Diego Air and Space Museum / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B-25 Mitchell was a very safe and forgiving medium bomber. While in the air, if one engine was lost, it could still fly, making 60-degree banking turns at speeds as low as 145 MPH. The landing gear also provided the crew with visibility while taxiing.

The aircraft was known for its durability. For instance, one B-25C, nicknamed “Patches,” had each patch covering flak damage painted in yellow zinc chromate primer. It completed over 300 missions and six belly landings, and was pockmarked with over 400 holes from enemy fire.

The only complaint made by B-25 crews was the noise. The engine’s exhaust, due to restrictions in the design and space, pointed toward the crew compartments, which led to deafening flights.

North American B-25 Mitchell specs

North American B-25C Mitchell. (Photo Credit: US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B-25 Mitchell was nearly 53 feet long; had a wingspan of 67 feet, seven inches; and weighed 29,300 pounds. Depending on the variant, the bomber could be armed with up to 18 .50-cal. machine guns. It carried to 3,000 pounds of bombs, with later models given the ability to hold up to eight 5-inch high-velocity aircraft rockets (HVAR) or one Mark 13 torpedo. Some were even modified to carry a 75 mm cannon.

Two Wright R-2600-92 Twin Cyclone 14-cylinder two-row air-cooled radial piston engines, each producing 1,700 horsepower, powered the B-25. These allowed the bomber to maintain a cruising speed of 233 MPH and reach a maximum of 328 MPH. Its range topped out at around 2,500 miles with auxiliary fuel tanks, and it had a ceiling of 21,200 feet.

Doolittle Raid

North American B-25B Mitchells aboard the USS Hornet (CV-8) en route to Japan for the Doolittle Raid, 1942. (Photo Credit: US Navy / National Museum of the US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B-25 Mitchell quickly shot to fame following its use during the Doolittle Raid. On April 18, 1942, 16 were launched from the USS Hornet (CV-8) to drop bombs on the Japanese cities of Tokyo, Yokohama, Yokosuka, Nagoya and Kōbe.

The bombers, along with their five-man crews and maintenance personnel, arrived aboard Hornet on April 1. Each would carry four 500-pound bombs, three high-explosive and one incendiary. To reduce the B-25s’ weight, their armament was reduced to two .50-caliber guns in the upper turret and a single .30-caliber gun in the nose.

On April 2, Hornet departed San Francisco Bay to join Task Force 16 (TF-16), made up of the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6), along with three heavy cruisers, a light cruiser, eight destroyers and two fleet oilers. The vessels then sailed for Japan. On the 18th, TF-16 was roughly 750 miles from Japan. While they were 200 miles further away than planned, it was decided the attack would begin. Despite none of the B-25 pilots ever having taken off from a carrier, all 16 successfully launched from Hornet.

After flying for about six hours, the bombers reached Japan. During the attack, none of the B-25s were shot down, and only one received damage from anti-aircraft fire. Having dropped their bombs, 15 of the American aircraft turned to the southwest, toward eastern China. All 15 reached their destination, with their crews either crash-landing or bailing out. The last B-25, with extremely low fuel, flew to the Soviet Union, where the crew was detained and the bomber impounded.

While the Doolittle Raid caused relatively minor damage to Japan, it did show the Japanese that the Americans could attack the mainland. It also proved to be a great morale booster for the American public, showing that they were now in the fight after Pearl Harbor.

Extensive service throughout World War II

North American B-25 Mitchell. (Photo Credit: US Air Force / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)

The B-25 Mitchell would go on to see service in all theaters of the Second World War. While the medium bomber’s primary operator was the United States, it served with numerous other air forces during the conflict. The Royal Air Force (RAF), for instance, received B-25s as part of the Lend-Lease Act and they were used for training in the Bahamas and as a bomber over Europe. The Royal Canadian Air Force also used the Mitchell for training purposes.

As well, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) was equipped with the B-25, which it used as part of the No. 2 Squadron and the joint Australian-Dutch No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron. While most air forces stopped using the aircraft after the war, the Indonesian Air Force continued to operate it until 1979, a testament to the aircraft’s abilities.

Overall, the B-25 was the most-produced American medium bomber of the Second World War.

The General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark was a supersonic, medium-range, multi-role aircraft. Developed in the 1960s, it fulfilled a number of roles, including strategic bombing, reconnaissance and electronic warfare. It served with the US Air Force from 1968-96, and saw action during the Vietnam War, as well as other notable military events.

The F-111’s name refers to its look, resembling an aardvark with its long nose. It featured variable geometry wings, an internal weapons bay and a side-by-side cockpit configuration. One particularly unique component was its cockpit, which also served as the aircraft’s crew escape module.

Development of crew escape modules

Crew escape module of a General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark. (Photo Credit: Justin Smith / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

When development on the F-111 Aardvark began, ejection seats had already been developed, allowing pilots and crew members to eject from their aircraft via an explosive charge or rocket motor. Once at a safe distance away, a parachute deploys, ensuring they are able to return to the ground in a safe manner.

Ejection seats are highly effective and are the preferred method for aircrews to safely eject in dangerous situations. That being said, some believed that, if the crew remained in the cockpit, they’d be protected from numerous environmental and situational factors before landing on the ground.

Germany had made early attempts at developing an escape module during the Second World War. The United States began this type of work in the early 1950s, when officials considered implementing the component into the design of the US Navy’s Douglas F4D Skyray.

In the 1960s, the Convair B-58 Hustler became the first production aircraft to have an escape crew capsule. The Stanley Aviation Company developed the part, which was pressurized and had food and other survival supplies. During testing in 1962, a bear was used to measure the component’s effects. The animal became the first living creature to survive a supersonic ejection.

While the B-58 had individual encapsulated seats, the F-111 had a single cabin ejection module.

Crew escape modules and the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark

The F-111 Aardvark’s escape module was a product of the aircraft’s top speed. At Mach 2.2 – or 1,672 MPH – it was believed the component would provide a significant amount of protection for crew members. The self-contained module was itself the cockpit, as well as the upper and forward sections of the spine. It was watertight, which ensured ejections were just as safe at sea as they were over land.

When the module was ejected, following the pulling of the ejection handle, two rocket nozzles separated the part from the rest of the aircraft. Once released, the forward and upper part of the aircraft’s spine acted like a hood, stabilizing the module latterly and longitudinally. A drag chute was then released, slowing the component down, and stabilization and pitch flaps were deployed to help maintain an even descent.

Once the module had decelerated to 300 knots, the recovery chute was released. When deployed, its bridal cables were released, allowing for the module to level out. Impact bags were then deployed at the bottom, ensuring a safe touchdown.

An invaluable component

General Dynamics F-111E Aardvark crew escape module following a bird strike over the United Kingdom. (Photo Credit: Expatscot / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)

The F-111 Aardvark’s crew escape module was unusual, yet highly effective.

It was first used on October 19, 1967. Two General Dynamics contractor pilots were flying an F-111A over Texas when the aircraft experienced a total hydraulic failure and they lost control. Their only option: eject. At 28,000 feet and traveling at 280 knots, they jettisoned the escape module, and the two pilots were slowly lowered to the ground. Neither suffered any injury.

Serving with the US Air Force in multiple conflicts, including the Vietnam and Gulf wars, the F-111, unfortunately, had ample opportunity to show off its escape module. Initially, it had a troubled debut. However, as the aircraft saw improvements, the component proved to be not only an invaluable part of the crew’s survival, but an incredible piece of engineering.

With there were attempts to incorporate crew escape modules into other aircraft designs, such as that of the Rockwell B-1 Lancer, the F-111 was the primary and only user of the crew escape module.

For the twelfth time in recent memory, military documents have been leaked to the public via the War Thunder forum – this time, regarding the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk. The stealth attack aircraft’s flight manual was posted by a user, and it included a lot of details about its design.

Photo Credit: Bettmann / Getty Images

The leak was confirmed to Task & Purpose by Konstantin Govorun, head of public relations for Gaijin Entertainment, which developed the game. “Our moderators quickly nuked the post, deleted the files and banned the user,” he told the publication.

Allegedly, the post to the War Thunder forum featured the flight manual for the F-117, including its engine specifications, the location of its sensors and firing angles. The documents themselves weren’t classified, but are considered restricted.Photo Credit: Koalorka / Defense Link / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Developed by Lockheed, the F-117 was delivered to the US Air Force in 1982 and reached operational capacity the following year. It was developed because the United States needed an operational aircraft that could fly undetected. Its angular design reduced its aircraft signature, and its external coating was radar-absorbant.

Its existence remained a secret until 1988, with the stealth aircraft not making its first public appearance until two years later.

While it showed promise, the F-117 had its fair share of limitations, which ultimately led to its early retirement. The last unit was delivered in 1990, and it served during a number of conflicts, including the Gulf War and the early stages of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. All units were retired by 2008.Photo Credit: Images Press / Getty Images

When reached for comment by Task & Purpose about the leak, an Air Force spokesperson reiterated “that the U.S. government has urged companies to avoid allowing the distribution of information that is ‘detrimental to public safety and national security.’”

The incident was the second in as many weeks, as, on August 31, a user posted the flight manual for the Eurofighter Typhoon DA7 to the War Thunder forum, which contained information about the aircraft’s weaponry, systems and flight data. This year alone, there have been seven leaks on the forum.

Past leaks also include the classified manuals for the Type 69 II G tank, the flight manual for the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and classified documents for the Challenger 2.